Post-procedural cauda equina syndrome

Overview

Diagnosis

Management

Special Populations

Key Recommendations

References

Showing 100 most recent of 264 indexed papers.

1 Kane JM, Wild BM. Standardizing Procedural Sedation Education and Credentialing for Pediatric Practitioners: A Competency-Driven Framework. Pediatric annals 2026. link 2 Ali HM, Wolff L, Said SJ, Holbrook JS. Tools, Techniques, and Medications for Procedural Sedation in Children. Pediatric annals 2026. link 3 Varshini DR, Ayyan M, Anandhi D. Agreement Between Sonographically Estimated Gastric Contents and Reported Last Meal on Fasting Status in Procedural Sedation: A Cross-Sectional Analytical Study. The Journal of emergency medicine 2026. link 4 Lison D, Lorenzati B, Segre E, Bernardi E, Nazerian P, Gianno A et al.. Procedural sedation in the emergency department by Italian emergency physicians: results of the SEED SIMEU registry. European journal of emergency medicine : official journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine 2025. link 5 Bradshaw JC, Lester L, Greer MR, Leon DA. Remimazolam: A Novel Frontier in Procedural Sedation for Emergency Medicine. The Journal of emergency medicine 2025. link 6 Leroy PL, Krauss BS, Costa LR, Barbi E, Irwin MG, Carlson DW et al.. Procedural sedation competencies: a review and multidisciplinary international consensus statement on knowledge, skills, training, and credentialing. British journal of anaesthesia 2025. link 7 Monanian G, Yonel B, Rupert D, Razak A, DeLemos M, Bergese SD. Evaluating Remimazolam for Procedural Sedation. Current neuropharmacology 2025. link 8 Pingel L, Maagaard M, Tvarnø CD, Sorenson S, Bukhari S, Andersen LPK et al.. Remimazolam for procedural sedation: A systematic review with meta-analyses and trial sequential analyses. European journal of anaesthesiology 2025. link 9 Conway A, Goudarzi Rad M, Chang K, Parotto M, Mafeld S. Integrated pulmonary index during procedural sedation and analgesia: A cluster-randomized trial. Journal of advanced nursing 2025. link 10 Weant KA, Bailey AM. Dream of the Endless: Special Considerations in Procedural Sedation. Advanced emergency nursing journal 2025. link 11 Colin PJ, Bichajian LH, Curt VR, Koomen JV, Stöhr T, Struys MMRF et al.. Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Remimazolam for Procedural Sedation in Children and Adolescents. Anesthesiology 2025. link 12 Wang J. Comment on "A randomized double-blind trial of intranasal dexmedetomidine versus intranasal esketamine for procedural sedation and analgesia in young children". Scandinavian journal of trauma, resuscitation and emergency medicine 2025. link 13 Freeman N, Doolabh A, Maas E, Cupitt B, Shap A, Bertenshaw C et al.. SAFE: Safety of procedural sedation and analgesia administration in the fast-track area of the emergency department. Emergency medicine Australasia : EMA 2025. link 14 Muller B, Mougin K, Weber M, Beti E, Guihard B, Tounkara BS et al.. Recall Incidence After Procedural Sedation With Propofol in Emergency Departments. The Journal of emergency medicine 2025. link 15 Kumar A, Ahmad M, Nadeem MS, Khan AA, Kashif MA, Rajpar NA et al.. Evaluating the combination of esketamine and propofol in procedural analgesia/sedation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Minerva anestesiologica 2025. link 16 Kim EH, Park JB, Ji SH, Jang YE, Lee JH, Kim HS et al.. Using capnography in children to prevent oxygen desaturation during procedural sedation: A randomised trial. European journal of anaesthesiology 2025. link 17 Türkücü Ç, Parlak İ, Kokulu K, Sert ET, Mutlu H. Comparison of the incidence of recovery agitation with two different doses of ketamine in procedural sedation: A randomized clinical trial. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2025. link 18 Fauteux-Lamarre E, Hearps S, McCarthy M, Quinn N, Davidson A, Legge D et al.. Associations with early vomiting when using intranasal fentanyl and nitrous oxide for procedural sedation in children: A secondary analysis of a randomised controlled trial. Emergency medicine Australasia : EMA 2025. link 19 Andreassen S, Krarup AL, Kamp A, Andersen DM, Krogh-Larsen S, Nielsen VML et al.. Effectiveness and safety of remimazolam sedation in the emergency department. Danish medical journal 2025. link 20 Andreassen S, Nielsen VML, Krarup AL, Kamp A, Andersen DM, Krogh-Larsen S et al.. Remimazolam for procedural sedation in the emergency department: a prospective study of effectiveness and patient satisfaction. Scandinavian journal of trauma, resuscitation and emergency medicine 2025. link 21 Peterson B, Nowacki AS, Ulintz A, Mace SE. Procedural Sedation in the Emergency Department - An Observational Study: Does Nil Per Os Status Matter?. The western journal of emergency medicine 2025. link 22 Conway A, Li J, Rad MG, Warren B, Mafeld S, Taati B. Automating sedation state assessments using natural language processing. Journal of nursing scholarship : an official publication of Sigma Theta Tau International Honor Society of Nursing 2025. link 23 Gardner L, Causey C, Zito A, Novosel LM. Development and Implementation of a Procedural Sedation Course for Registered Nurses. Journal for nurses in professional development 2024. link 24 Tom D, Reeves S. Pediatric Procedural Sedation. Pediatric annals 2024. link 25 Oh A, Karim N, Pitt A, Hodgetts S, Edwards DW, Mullan D et al.. EEG bispectral index sensor guidance improves accuracy and safety of procedural sedation. Clinical radiology 2024. link 26 Erumbala G, Anzar S, Deiratany S, Blackie B, Powell C, Al Ansari K. Procedural sedation programme minimising adverse events: a 3-year experience from a tertiary paediatric emergency department. Archives of disease in childhood 2024. link 27 Salloum E, Lotte Seibold E, Azimaraghi O, Rudolph MI, Beier J, Schaefer MS et al.. Association of ketamine use during procedural sedation with oxygen desaturation and healthcare utilisation: a multicentre retrospective hospital registry study. British journal of anaesthesia 2024. link 28 Nay MA, Auvet A. Place of high-flow nasal oxygen in nonoperating room anesthesia. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2024. link 29 Roe FR. How to NAPS: A Discussion of the Safety and Implementation of a Nurse Administered Propofol Sedation (NAPS) Program. Gastroenterology nursing : the official journal of the Society of Gastroenterology Nurses and Associates 2024. link 30 Sharif S, Kang J, Sadeghirad B, Rizvi F, Forestell B, Greer A et al.. Pharmacological agents for procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department and intensive care unit: a systematic review and network meta-analysis of randomised trials. British journal of anaesthesia 2024. link 31 Khan U, Hammer GB, Duncan-Azadi C, Suzuki Y, Chiles D, Chime S et al.. A randomized, double-blind, dose-controlled study of the use of dexmedetomidine alone for procedural sedation of children and adolescents undergoing MRI scans. Paediatric anaesthesia 2024. link 32 Bailey AM, Weant KA. Dream of the Endless: Updates in Agents for Procedural Sedation. Advanced emergency nursing journal 2024. link 33 Khan MT, Khan AR, Rohail S, Raza FA, Ahmed S, Siddiqui A et al.. Safety of procedural sedation in emergency department settings among the adult population: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Internal and emergency medicine 2024. link 34 Millar R, Moorhouse A. Aerosol generation during paediatric procedural sedation with continuous-flow nitrous oxide suggests a low risk of airborne viral transmission to health-care workers. Journal of paediatrics and child health 2023. link 35 Ayandeh A, Farrell N, Sheng AY. Requirement for Discharge in the Care of a Responsible Adult in Procedural Sedation in the Emergency Department: Necessity or Potential Barrier to Health Equity?. The Journal of emergency medicine 2023. link 36 Röher K, Becke-Jakob K, Eich C. Safety and quality in paediatric procedural sedation: what really matters?. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2023. link 37 Lubin Y, Weiser G. Nighttime Sedations in the Pediatric Emergency Department: A Single-Center Experience. Pediatric emergency care 2023. link 38 Chang Y, Huang YT, Chi KY, Huang YT. Remimazolam . PeerJ 2023. link 39 Stehr-Pingel L, Maagaard M, Tvarnø CD, Andersen LPK, Andersen JH, Mathiesen O. Remimazolam for sedation: A protocol for a systematic review with meta-analysis, trial sequential analysis, and GRADE approach. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2023. link 40 van Dijk H, Hendriks MP, van Eck-Smaling MM, van Wolfswinkel L, van Loon K. Age-Stratified Propofol Dosage for Pediatric Procedural Sedation and Analgesia. Anesthesia and analgesia 2023. link 41 Esmaillian M, Kouhestani S, Azizkhani R, Heydari F, Safavi MR. Dexmedetomidine versus propofol: An effective combination with ketamine for adult procedural sedation: A randomized clinical trial. The American journal of emergency medicine 2023. link 42 Burger RK, Taylor TR, Chumpitazi CE, Robinson LC, Sims MJ, Tunc EM et al.. Pediatric Emergency Medicine Fellowship Procedural Sedation Training: Consensus Educational Guidelines. Pediatric emergency care 2022. link 43 Abdelmalak BB, Adhami T, Simmons W, Menendez P, Haggerty E, Troianos CA. A Blueprint for Success: Implementation of the Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services Mandated Anesthesiology Oversight for Procedural Sedation in a Large Health System. Anesthesia and analgesia 2022. link 44 Kern J, Guinn A, Mehta P. Procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department. Emergency medicine practice 2022. link 45 Iqbal AU, Shuster ME, Baum CR. Ketofol for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Pediatric Population. Pediatric emergency care 2022. link 46 Turnbull D. High-flow nasal oxygen, procedural sedation, and clinical governance. Minerva anestesiologica 2022. link 47 Moake MM, Presley BC, Hill JG, Wolf BJ, Kane ID, Busch CE et al.. Point-of-Care Ultrasound to Assess Gastric Content in Pediatric Emergency Department Procedural Sedation Patients. Pediatric emergency care 2022. link 48 Tang Y, Yang X, Yu Y, Shu H, Xu J, Li R et al.. Remimazolam versus traditional sedatives for procedural sedation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of efficacy and safety outcomes. Minerva anestesiologica 2022. link 49 van den Bosch OFC, Alvarez-Jimenez R, Schet SG, Delfsma K, Loer SA. Breathing variability during propofol/remifentanil procedural sedation with a single additional dose of midazolam or s-ketamine: a prospective observational study. Journal of clinical monitoring and computing 2022. link 50 Cohen N, Test G, Pasternak Y, Singer-Harel D, Schneeweiss S, Ratnapalan S et al.. Opioids Safety in Pediatric Procedural Sedation with Ketamine. The Journal of pediatrics 2022. link 51 Bisschops R, Saunders R, Dooms C, Hoffman I, van der Merwe S, Weissbrod R et al.. Implementing capnography to help improve patient safety during procedural sedation: quality improvement in a high-volume gastroenterology department. European journal of gastroenterology & hepatology 2021. link 52 Sims MJ, Robinson LC, Titus MO, Jackson BF. Pediatric Emergency Medicine Training in Procedural Sedation: Is It Time for a Standardized Curriculum?. Pediatric emergency care 2021. link 53 Sulton CD, Burger RK, Figueroa J, Taylor TR. Evaluation of pediatric procedural sedation education in pediatric emergency medicine fellowships. Medicine 2021. link 54 Hewson DW, Hardman JG, Bedforth NM. Patient-maintained propofol sedation for adult patients undergoing surgical or medical procedures: a scoping review of current evidence and technology. British journal of anaesthesia 2021. link 55 Wells ME, Barnes RM, Caporossi J, Weant KA. The Influence of Age on Propofol Dosing Requirements During Procedural Sedation in the Emergency Department. Advanced emergency nursing journal 2021. link 56 Kiuru S, Gutenstein M, Withington S. Exploratory survey of procedural sedation and analgesia practice in sample of New Zealand rural hospitals: existing guidelines do not support current rural practice. Rural and remote health 2021. link 57 Zhou J, Curd L, Lohmer LL, Ossig J, Schippers F, Stoehr T et al.. Population Pharmacokinetics of Remimazolam in Procedural Sedation With Nonhomogeneously Mixed Arterial and Venous Concentrations. Clinical and translational science 2021. link 58 Green SM, Norse AB, Jackson BF, Carman MJ, Roback MG. Regulatory Challenges to Emergency Medicine Procedural Sedation. Annals of emergency medicine 2021. link 59 Tervonen M, Kallio M, Peltoniemi O. National survey revealed variable practices in paediatric procedural sedation and patient monitoring. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2021. link 60 Zhou J, Curd L, Lohmer LRL, Delpratt N, Ossig J, Schippers F et al.. A population pharmacodynamic Markov mixed-effects model for determining remimazolam-induced sedation when co-administered with fentanyl in procedural sedation. Clinical and translational science 2021. link 61 Ellington M, Booker RJ. Procedural sedation at role 1: applicability to military clinicians and minimum monitoring criteria. BMJ military health 2021. link 62 Schlegelmilch M, Roback MG, Bhatt M. Impact of young age on outcomes of emergency department procedural sedation. The American journal of emergency medicine 2021. link 63 Conway A, Collins P, Chang K, Mafeld S, Sutherland J, Fingleton J et al.. Pre-apneic capnography waveform abnormalities during procedural sedation and analgesia. Journal of clinical monitoring and computing 2020. link 64 Burton FM, Lowe DJ, Millar JE, Corfield AR, Watson MJ, Shaw M et al.. Effect of target-controlled propofol infusion to reduce the incidence of adverse events for procedural sedation in the emergency department: a systematic review. European journal of emergency medicine : official journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine 2020. link 65 Kuga S, Maeda T, Ihara K. Pediatric procedural sedation in Japan: A single-facility study of 1,436 cases. Pediatrics international : official journal of the Japan Pediatric Society 2020. link 66 Simon BT, Steagall PV. Feline procedural sedation and analgesia: When, why and how. Journal of feline medicine and surgery 2020. link 67 Hinkelbein J, Schmitz J, Lamperti M, Fuchs-Buder T. Procedural sedation outside the operating room. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2020. link 68 Wiersma AJ, Bernier B, Leonard J, Faulk D, DiStefano M, Wathen J. Ketamine Sedation and Hypoxia: A Quality Improvement Project to Reduce Respiratory Events Receiving Intervention. The Journal of emergency medicine 2020. link 69 Nejati A, Davarani SS, Talebian MT, Hossein F, Akbari H. Does intramuscular ondansetron have an effect on intramuscular ketamine-associated vomiting in children? A prospective, randomized, double blind, controlled study. The American journal of emergency medicine 2020. link 70 Foo TY, Mohd Noor N, Yazid MB, Fauzi MH, Abdull Wahab SF, Ahmad MZ. Ketamine-propofol (Ketofol) for procedural sedation and analgesia in children: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC emergency medicine 2020. link 71 Askar H, Misch J, Chen Z, Chadha S, Wang HL. Capnography monitoring in procedural intravenous sedation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clinical oral investigations 2020. link 72 Green SM, Leroy PL, Roback MG, Irwin MG, Andolfatto G, Babl FE et al.. An international multidisciplinary consensus statement on fasting before procedural sedation in adults and children. Anaesthesia 2020. link 73 Reibling ET, Green SM, Phan T, Lopez-Gusman E, Fierro L, Davis A et al.. Emergency Department Procedural Sedation Practice Limitations: A Statewide California American College of Emergency Physicians Survey. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2019. link 74 Kuypers MI, Smits GJP, Baerends EP, Oskam E, Reijners EPJ, Mignot-Evers LAA et al.. Paediatric procedural sedation and analgesia by emergency physicians in a country with a recent establishment of emergency medicine. European journal of emergency medicine : official journal of the European Society for Emergency Medicine 2019. link 75 Tran TT, Beutler SS, Urman RD. Moderate and deep sedation training and pharmacology for nonanesthesiologists: recommendations for effective practice. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2019. link 76 Leviter J, Steele DW, Constantine E, Linakis JG, Amanullah S. "Full Stomach" Despite the Wait: Point-of-care Gastric Ultrasound at the Time of Procedural Sedation in the Pediatric Emergency Department. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2019. link 77 Green SM, Roback MG, Krauss BS, Miner JR, Schneider S, Kivela PD et al.. Unscheduled Procedural Sedation: A Multidisciplinary Consensus Practice Guideline. Annals of emergency medicine 2019. link 78 van Haperen M, Preckel B, Eberl S. Indications, contraindications, and safety aspects of procedural sedation. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2019. link 79 Jo YY, Kwak HJ. Sedation Strategies for Procedures Outside the Operating Room. Yonsei medical journal 2019. link 80 Hu Y, Xu W, Cao F. A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials: combination of ketamine and propofol versus ketamine alone for procedural sedation and analgesia in children. Internal and emergency medicine 2019. link 81 Avci S, Bayram B, Inanç G, Gören NZ, Oniz A, Ozgoren M et al.. Evaluation of the compliance between EEG monitoring (Bispectral IndexTM) and Ramsey Sedation Scale to measure the depth of sedation in the patients who underwent procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department. Ulusal travma ve acil cerrahi dergisi = Turkish journal of trauma & emergency surgery : TJTES 2019. link 82 Akhlaghi N, Payandemehr P, Yaseri M, Akhlaghi AA, Abdolrazaghnejad A. Premedication With Midazolam or Haloperidol to Prevent Recovery Agitation in Adults Undergoing Procedural Sedation With Ketamine: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial. Annals of emergency medicine 2019. link 83 Malia L, Laurich VM, Sturm JJ. Adverse events and satisfaction with use of intranasal midazolam for emergency department procedures in children. The American journal of emergency medicine 2019. link 84 Conway A, Collins P, Chang K, Mafeld S, Sutherland J, Fingleton J. Sequence analysis of capnography waveform abnormalities during nurse-administered procedural sedation and analgesia in the cardiac catheterization laboratory. Scientific reports 2019. link 85 Forrester KR, Thomas SM, Gupta NK, Karumuri M, Gerard JM. Repeat Intravenous Ketamine Dosing in Children Undergoing Emergency Department Procedural Sedation. The Journal of emergency medicine 2019. link 86 Schick A, Driver B, Moore JC, Fagerstrom E, Miner JR. Randomized Clinical Trial Comparing Procedural Amnesia and Respiratory Depression Between Moderate and Deep Sedation With Propofol in the Emergency Department. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2019. link 87 Norii T, Homma Y, Shimizu H, Takase H, Kim SH, Nagata S et al.. Procedural sedation and analgesia in the emergency department in Japan: interim analysis of multicenter prospective observational study. Journal of anesthesia 2019. link 88 Rossi L, Penela D, Doni L, Marazzi R, Napoli V, Napoli L et al.. Development of simulation combining a physical heart model and three-dimensional system for electrophysiology training. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2018. link 89 Roback MG, Green SM, Andolfatto G, Leroy PL, Mason KP. Tracking and Reporting Outcomes Of Procedural Sedation (TROOPS): Standardized Quality Improvement and Research Tools from the International Committee for the Advancement of Procedural Sedation. British journal of anaesthesia 2018. link 90 Ben-Ari M, Chayen G, Steiner IP, Schinasi DA, Feldman O, Shavit I. The effect of in situ simulation training on the performance of tasks related to patient safety during sedation. Journal of anesthesia 2018. link 91 Hinkelbein J, Lamperti M, Akeson J, Santos J, Costa J, De Robertis E et al.. European Society of Anaesthesiology and European Board of Anaesthesiology guidelines for procedural sedation and analgesia in adults. European journal of anaesthesiology 2018. link 92 Gallagher JJ. Capnography Monitoring During Procedural Sedation and Analgesia. AACN advanced critical care 2018. link 93 Kreienbühl L, Elia N, Pfeil-Beun E, Walder B, Tramèr MR. Patient-Controlled Versus Clinician-Controlled Sedation With Propofol: Systematic Review and Meta-analysis With Trial Sequential Analyses. Anesthesia and analgesia 2018. link 94 Ward DS, Williams MR, Berkenbosch JW, Bhatt M, Carlson D, Chappell P et al.. Evaluating Patient-Centered Outcomes in Clinical Trials of Procedural Sedation, Part 2 Safety: Sedation Consortium on Endpoints and Procedures for Treatment, Education, and Research Recommendations. Anesthesia and analgesia 2018. link 95 Barends CRM, Absalom AR, Struys MMRF. Drug selection for ambulatory procedural sedation. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2018. link 96 Homfray G, Palmer A, Grimsmo-Powney H, Appelboam A, Lloyd G. Procedural sedation of elderly patients by emergency physicians: a safety analysis of 740 patients. British journal of anaesthesia 2018. link 97 Riedijk MA, Milstein DMJ. Imaging sublingual microcirculatory perfusion in pediatric patients receiving procedural sedation with propofol: A pilot study. Microcirculation (New York, N.Y. : 1994) 2018. link 98 Iyer MS, Pitetti RD, Vitale M. Higher Mallampati Scores Are Not Associated with More Adverse Events During Pediatric Procedural Sedation and Analgesia. The western journal of emergency medicine 2018. link 99 Greer A, Treston G. Factors associated with patient-reported procedural memory following emergency department procedural sedation with ketamine and propofol: A prospective cohort of 563 patients. Emergency medicine Australasia : EMA 2018. link 100 Mathews DM, Oberding MJ, Simmons EL, O'Donnell SE, Abnet KR, MacDonald K. Improving patient safety during procedural sedation via respiratory volume monitoring: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of clinical anesthesia 2018. link