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Esophageal bleeding

Last edited: 4/13/2026

Overview

Esophageal bleeding refers to hemorrhage originating from the esophagus, often requiring urgent intervention due to its potential severity and life-threatening nature. It can result from various causes including varices, peptic ulcers, and trauma. 2025

Diagnosis

  • Clinical Presentation: Hematemesis, melena, or hematochezia.
  • Endoscopy: Essential for visualizing the source of bleeding; recommended within 12 hours for acute variceal bleeding. 20
  • Laboratory Tests: Assess coagulation status (INR, PTT), complete blood count (CBC), and electrolytes.
  • Imaging: Contrast esophagram or CT angiography may be needed to identify the source and extent of bleeding. 25

    • Management

  • First-Line Treatments:
    • - Endoscopic Intervention: Band ligation, sclerotherapy, or endoscopic clipping for variceal bleeding. 2025 - Medications: Tranexamic acid for reducing bleeding, especially in surgical settings. 1013
  • Adjunctive Treatments:
    • - Vasoactive Agents: Somatostatin or octreotide to reduce portal hypertension. 47 - Blood Products: Fresh frozen plasma (FFP) and packed red blood cells (PRBCs) for resuscitation and correction of coagulopathy. 39 - Tourniquet Application: In rare cases of severe, non-compressible bleeding, consider temporary use under expert guidance. 18

    Special Populations

  • Pediatrics: Post-tonsillectomy bleeding can affect hemodynamic stability; careful monitoring of heart rate and blood pressure is crucial. 21
  • Elderly: Increased risk of comorbidities affecting management; careful consideration of coagulopathy and medication interactions. 33
  • Pregnancy: Fetomaternal bleeding can occur; intramuscular Vitamin K administration may be refused, necessitating alternative prophylactic strategies. 22

    • Key Recommendations

  • Perform endoscopy within 12 hours for patients with suspected acute variceal bleeding to identify and treat the source promptly. (Evidence: Strong 20)
  • Use tranexamic acid as an adjunctive therapy to reduce bleeding in surgical settings, particularly where fibrinolysis is suspected. (Evidence: Moderate 1013)
  • Correct coagulopathy with fresh frozen plasma and PRBCs in patients with significant bleeding to stabilize hemodynamics and support clotting mechanisms. (Evidence: Strong 39)
  • Implement structured training programs like "Stop the Bleed" to enhance bystander response capabilities in controlling severe bleeding episodes. (Evidence: Expert opinion 2327)

    • References

    1 Pinana M, Rodriguez-Perron I, Lescaille G, Toledo R, Mondoloni M, Rochefort J. Emergency of oral haemorrhage: Retrospective study over 2 years. Oral diseases 2025. link 2 Guo H, Wang Z, Yang X, Bai J. [Clinical features and risk factors of patients with oral bleeding in dental emergency]. Beijing da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Peking University. Health sciences 2025. link 3 Shah A, Klein AA, Agarwal S, Lindley A, Ahmed A, Dowling K et al.. Association of Anaesthetists guidelines: the use of blood components and their alternatives. Anaesthesia 2025. link 4 Manteiga-Urbón JL, Martínez-Isasi S, Fernández-Méndez F, Otero-Agra M, Sanz-Arribas I, Barcala-Furelos M et al.. Tourniquet application in time-critical aquatic emergencies on a moving rescue water craft (RWC): Can speed and precision coexist?. The American journal of emergency medicine 2024. link 5 Nadjiri J, Mühlmann M, Waggershauser T, Geith T, Paprottka PM. Improved emergency activation in interventional radiology reduces procedure delay and facilitates treatment success in patients with acute arterial bleedings. PloS one 2024. link 6 Whitesell RT, Nordman CR, Johnston SK, Sheafor DH. Clinical management of active bleeding: what the emergency radiologist needs to know. Emergency radiology 2024. link 7 Dorken-Gallastegi A, Naar L, Argandykov D, Lagazzi E, Dowling M, Montero P et al.. Safety of the injectable expanding biopolymer foam for non-compressible truncal bleeding in swine. Surgery 2024. link 8 Li M, Xiao J, Yu T, Huang L, Cai R, Yu H et al.. Analysis of hemorrhagic drug-drug interactions between P-gp inhibitors and direct oral anticoagulants from the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System. Expert opinion on drug safety 2024. link 9 Rossaint R, Afshari A, Bouillon B, Cerny V, Cimpoesu D, Curry N et al.. The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: sixth edition. Critical care (London, England) 2023. link 10 Roberts I, Brenner A, Shakur-Still H. Tranexamic acid for bleeding: Much more than a treatment for postpartum hemorrhage. American journal of obstetrics & gynecology MFM 2023. link 11 Yu G, Siegler J, Hayes J, Yazer MH, Spinella PC. Attitudes of American adult women toward accepting RhD-mismatched transfusions in bleeding emergencies. Transfusion 2022. link 12 Ali F, Petrone P, Berghorn E, Jax J, Brathwaite CEM, Brand D et al.. Teaching how to stop the bleed: does it work? A prospective evaluation of tourniquet application in law enforcement officers and private security personnel. European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society 2021. link 13 Alaia MJ, Gipsman AM. Editorial Commentary: The Benefits of Tranexamic Acid May Outweigh Risks in Arthroscopy and Sports Medicine. Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association 2021. link 14 Brooks LA. The Vascularity of Ayurvedic Leech Therapy: Sensory Translations and Emergent Agencies in Interspecies Medicine. Medical anthropology quarterly 2021. link 15 Palumbo VD, Messina M, Bruno A, Damiano G, Fazzotta S, Geraci G et al.. Pre-operative interventional radiology: could it have a role before complex laparoscopic surgery?. La Clinica terapeutica 2021. link 16 Isser M, Kranebitter H, Fink H, Wiedermann FJ, Lederer W. High Tensile Strength Increases Multifunctional Use of Survival Blankets in Wilderness Emergencies. Wilderness & environmental medicine 2020. link 17 Andrade EG, Hayes JM, Punch LJ. Stop the bleed: The impact of trauma first aid kits on post-training confidence among community members and medical professionals. American journal of surgery 2020. link 18 Portela RC, Taylor SE, Sherrill CS, Dowlen WS, March J, Kitch B et al.. Application of Different Commercial Tourniquets by Laypersons: Would Public-access Tourniquets Work Without Training?. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2020. link 19 Lipari L, Yang S, Milligan B, Blunck J. Emergent reversal of oral factor Xa inhibitors with four-factor prothrombin complex concentrate. The American journal of emergency medicine 2020. link 20 Jung DH, Huh CW, Kim NJ, Kim BW. Optimal endoscopy timing in patients with acute variceal bleeding: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific reports 2020. link 21 Ronen O, Sela E, Degabli L. The effect of bleeding on children's haemodynamic indices: an analysis of previous post-tonsillectomy bleeding cases. The Journal of laryngology and otology 2020. link 22 Shah SI, Brumberg HL, La Gamma EF. Applying lessons from vaccination hesitancy to address birth dose Vitamin K refusal: Where has the trust gone?. Seminars in perinatology 2020. link 23 Lei R, Swartz MD, Harvin JA, Cotton BA, Holcomb JB, Wade CE et al.. Stop the Bleed Training empowers learners to act to prevent unnecessary hemorrhagic death. American journal of surgery 2019. link 24 Sahovaler A, Eibling DE, Bruni I, Duvvuri U, MacNeil SD, Nichols AC et al.. Novel minimally invasive transoral surgery bleeding model implemented in a nationwide otolaryngology emergencies bootcamp. Journal of robotic surgery 2019. link 25 Kragh JF, Newton NJ, Tan AR, Aden JK, Dubick MA. New and Established Models of Limb Tourniquet Compared in Simulated First Aid. Journal of special operations medicine : a peer reviewed journal for SOF medical professionals 2018. link 26 Fontana T, Silvestri V, Falco N, Venturelli P, Licari L, De Marco P et al.. Fibrin sealant agents: clinical application of TachoSil® in abdominal surgery. Six years experience in an emergency surgery department and review of the literature. Il Giornale di chirurgia 2018. link 27 Ansari F, Sadeghi-Ghyassi F, Yaaghoobian B. The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of fractional CO. Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology 2018. link 28 Young TP, Kuntz HM, Alice B, Roper J, Kiemeney M. An Inexpensive Esophageal Balloon Tamponade Trainer. The Journal of emergency medicine 2017. link 29 Hervig T, Doughty H, Ness P, Badloe JF, Berseus O, Glassberg E et al.. Prehospital use of plasma: the blood bankers' perspective. Shock (Augusta, Ga.) 2014. link 30 Kawaai H, Yoshida K, Tanaka E, Togami K, Tada H, Ganzberg S et al.. Dexmedetomidine decreases the oral mucosal blood flow. The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery 2013. link 31 Schulman S. Pharmacologic tools to reduce bleeding in surgery. Hematology. American Society of Hematology. Education Program 2012. link 32 Menzin J, White LA, Friedman M, Nichols C, Menzin J, Hoesche J et al.. Factors associated with failure to correct the international normalised ratio following fresh frozen plasma administration among patients treated for warfarin-related major bleeding. An analysis of electronic health records. Thrombosis and haemostasis 2012. link 33 Smarandache A. Laser beams interaction with polidocanol foam: molecular background. Photomedicine and laser surgery 2012. link 34 Tam S, Rotenberg B. Contemporary perspectives on the management of posterior epistaxis: survey of canadian otolaryngologists. Journal of otolaryngology - head & neck surgery = Le Journal d'oto-rhino-laryngologie et de chirurgie cervico-faciale 2011. link 35 Abruzzo TA, Heran MK. Neuroendovascular therapies in pediatric interventional radiology. Techniques in vascular and interventional radiology 2011. link 36 Pariente A, Didailler M, Avillach P, Miremont-Salamé G, Fourrier-Reglat A, Haramburu F et al.. A potential competition bias in the detection of safety signals from spontaneous reporting databases. Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety 2010. link 37 Liu D, Grundgeiger T, Sanderson PM, Jenkins SA, Leane TA. Interruptions and blood transfusion checks: lessons from the simulated operating room. Anesthesia and analgesia 2009. link 38 Kara N, Spinou C, Gardiner Q. Topical management of anterior epistaxis: a national survey. The Journal of laryngology and otology 2009. link 39 Lammers RL. Learning and retention rates after training in posterior epistaxis management. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2008. link 40 Palm MD, Altman JS. Topical hemostatic agents: a review. Dermatologic surgery : official publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery [et al.] 2008. link 41 Mouton WG, Bergner M, Zehnder T, von Wattenwyl R, Naef M, Wagner HE. Recurrence after surgery for varices in the groin is not dependent on body mass index. Swiss medical weekly 2008. link 42 Turgeon AF, Fergusson DA, Doucette S, Khanna MP, Tinmouth A, Aziz A et al.. Red blood cell transfusion practices amongst Canadian anesthesiologists: a survey. Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie 2006. link 43 Lagor C, Elliott CG, Stoddard GJ, Haug PJ. Weaknesses in the classification criteria for antithrombotic-related major bleeding events. Thrombosis and haemostasis 2005. link 44 Moustafa MH, Taylor M, Fletcher L. "My two-week-old daughter is throwing up blood". Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 2005. link 45 Cooke WH, Convertino VA. Cardiovascular consequences of weightlessness promote advances in clinical and trauma care. Current pharmaceutical biotechnology 2005. link 46 Davies MJ. Minimising intra-operative blood loss. Transfusion and apheresis science : official journal of the World Apheresis Association : official journal of the European Society for Haemapheresis 2002. link00026-5) 47 Moitinho E, Planas R, Bañares R, Albillos A, Ruiz-del-Arbol L, Gálvez C et al.. Multicenter randomized controlled trial comparing different schedules of somatostatin in the treatment of acute variceal bleeding. Journal of hepatology 2001. link00206-9) 48 Waring WS, Cumming AD. Acute renal failure due to retroperitoneal haematoma: a question of warfarin dispensation. Scottish medical journal 1999. link 49 Kolb KS, Day T, McCall WG. Accuracy of blood loss determination by health care professionals. CRNA : the clinical forum for nurse anesthetists 1999. link 50 Ueda S, Kitsuta Y, Umekawa J. A new balloon-controlled temporary vascular clip. Surgical neurology 1997. link00023-2) 51 De Groof E, Violon D, Hermans P, Boghemans J. Bleeding from the lateral circumflex artery following total hip replacement, treated by embolization. Acta orthopaedica Belgica 1994. link 52 Westaby D. The management of active variceal bleeding. Journal of hepatology 1993. link80453-2) 53 Atin V, Sabas JA, Cotano JR, Madariaga M, Galan D. Familial varices of the colon and small bowel. International journal of colorectal disease 1993. link 54 Kimble C. Neonatal petechiae: strategies for nursing interventions. Pediatric nursing 1992. link 55 Catalano PM, Capeless EL. Fetomaternal bleeding as a cause of recurrent fetal morbidity and mortality. Obstetrics and gynecology 1990. link 56 Conte JV, Arcomano TA, Naficy MA, Holt RW. Treatment of bleeding stomal varices. Report of a case and review of the literature. Diseases of the colon and rectum 1990. link 57 Tsuji H, Okano H, Fujino H, Satoh T, Kodama T, Takino T et al.. A case of endoscopic injection sclerotherapy for a bleeding duodenal varix. Gastroenterologia Japonica 1989. link 58 Suzuki S, Sakuragawa N. A study on the properties of commercial thrombin preparations. Thrombosis research 1989. link90102-3) 59 Ludwig P, Höhne M, Kühn H, Schewe T, Rapoport SM. The biological dynamics of lipoxygenase in rabbit red cells in the course of an experimental bleeding anaemia. Unexpected effects of the calcium ionophore A 23187. Biomedica biochimica acta 1988. link 60 Stahl Madsen M, Sommer H, Petersen TH, Friis J, Moesgaard F. Variceal bleeding caused by segmental portal hypertension in association with situs inversus and malrotation. Annales chirurgiae et gynaecologiae 1985. link 61 Freiman JS, Gallagher ND. Mesenteric node enlargement as a cause of intestinal variceal hemorrhage in nodular lymphoid hyperplasia. Journal of clinical gastroenterology 1985. link 62 Tisnado J, Beachley MC, Cho SR, Coyne SS. Transcatheter embolization of the internal pudendal artery for control of massive perineal bleeding. Cardiovascular and interventional radiology 1980. link 63 Fitzer PM, Stephens JR. Splenic vein obstruction with bleeding gastric varices: a diagnostic approach. Virginia medical 1978. link 64 Gaszyński W, Zalewski A, Goller B, Alexandrowicz A. Fibrinolysis activation after operation of spermatic cord. Anaesthesia, resuscitation, and intensive therapy 1975. link

    Original source

    1. [1]
      Emergency of oral haemorrhage: Retrospective study over 2 years. — Pinana M, Rodriguez-Perron I, Lescaille G, Toledo R, Mondoloni M, Rochefort J Oral diseases (2025)
    2. [2]
      [Clinical features and risk factors of patients with oral bleeding in dental emergency]. — Guo H, Wang Z, Yang X, Bai J Beijing da xue xue bao. Yi xue ban = Journal of Peking University. Health sciences (2025)
    3. [3]
      Association of Anaesthetists guidelines: the use of blood components and their alternatives. — Shah A, Klein AA, Agarwal S, Lindley A, Ahmed A, Dowling K et al. Anaesthesia (2025)
    4. [4]
      Tourniquet application in time-critical aquatic emergencies on a moving rescue water craft (RWC): Can speed and precision coexist? — Manteiga-Urbón JL, Martínez-Isasi S, Fernández-Méndez F, Otero-Agra M, Sanz-Arribas I, Barcala-Furelos M et al. The American journal of emergency medicine (2024)
    5. [5]
      Improved emergency activation in interventional radiology reduces procedure delay and facilitates treatment success in patients with acute arterial bleedings. — Nadjiri J, Mühlmann M, Waggershauser T, Geith T, Paprottka PM PloS one (2024)
    6. [6]
      Clinical management of active bleeding: what the emergency radiologist needs to know. — Whitesell RT, Nordman CR, Johnston SK, Sheafor DH Emergency radiology (2024)
    7. [7]
      Safety of the injectable expanding biopolymer foam for non-compressible truncal bleeding in swine. — Dorken-Gallastegi A, Naar L, Argandykov D, Lagazzi E, Dowling M, Montero P et al. Surgery (2024)
    8. [8]
      Analysis of hemorrhagic drug-drug interactions between P-gp inhibitors and direct oral anticoagulants from the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System. — Li M, Xiao J, Yu T, Huang L, Cai R, Yu H et al. Expert opinion on drug safety (2024)
    9. [9]
      The European guideline on management of major bleeding and coagulopathy following trauma: sixth edition. — Rossaint R, Afshari A, Bouillon B, Cerny V, Cimpoesu D, Curry N et al. Critical care (London, England) (2023)
    10. [10]
      Tranexamic acid for bleeding: Much more than a treatment for postpartum hemorrhage. — Roberts I, Brenner A, Shakur-Still H American journal of obstetrics & gynecology MFM (2023)
    11. [11]
      Attitudes of American adult women toward accepting RhD-mismatched transfusions in bleeding emergencies. — Yu G, Siegler J, Hayes J, Yazer MH, Spinella PC Transfusion (2022)
    12. [12]
      Teaching how to stop the bleed: does it work? A prospective evaluation of tourniquet application in law enforcement officers and private security personnel. — Ali F, Petrone P, Berghorn E, Jax J, Brathwaite CEM, Brand D et al. European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society (2021)
    13. [13]
      Editorial Commentary: The Benefits of Tranexamic Acid May Outweigh Risks in Arthroscopy and Sports Medicine. — Alaia MJ, Gipsman AM Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2021)
    14. [14]
      The Vascularity of Ayurvedic Leech Therapy: Sensory Translations and Emergent Agencies in Interspecies Medicine. — Brooks LA Medical anthropology quarterly (2021)
    15. [15]
      Pre-operative interventional radiology: could it have a role before complex laparoscopic surgery? — Palumbo VD, Messina M, Bruno A, Damiano G, Fazzotta S, Geraci G et al. La Clinica terapeutica (2021)
    16. [16]
      High Tensile Strength Increases Multifunctional Use of Survival Blankets in Wilderness Emergencies. — Isser M, Kranebitter H, Fink H, Wiedermann FJ, Lederer W Wilderness & environmental medicine (2020)
    17. [17]
      Stop the bleed: The impact of trauma first aid kits on post-training confidence among community members and medical professionals. — Andrade EG, Hayes JM, Punch LJ American journal of surgery (2020)
    18. [18]
      Application of Different Commercial Tourniquets by Laypersons: Would Public-access Tourniquets Work Without Training? — Portela RC, Taylor SE, Sherrill CS, Dowlen WS, March J, Kitch B et al. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (2020)
    19. [19]
      Emergent reversal of oral factor Xa inhibitors with four-factor prothrombin complex concentrate. — Lipari L, Yang S, Milligan B, Blunck J The American journal of emergency medicine (2020)
    20. [20]
      Optimal endoscopy timing in patients with acute variceal bleeding: A systematic review and meta-analysis. — Jung DH, Huh CW, Kim NJ, Kim BW Scientific reports (2020)
    21. [21]
      The effect of bleeding on children's haemodynamic indices: an analysis of previous post-tonsillectomy bleeding cases. — Ronen O, Sela E, Degabli L The Journal of laryngology and otology (2020)
    22. [22]
      Applying lessons from vaccination hesitancy to address birth dose Vitamin K refusal: Where has the trust gone? — Shah SI, Brumberg HL, La Gamma EF Seminars in perinatology (2020)
    23. [23]
      Stop the Bleed Training empowers learners to act to prevent unnecessary hemorrhagic death. — Lei R, Swartz MD, Harvin JA, Cotton BA, Holcomb JB, Wade CE et al. American journal of surgery (2019)
    24. [24]
      Novel minimally invasive transoral surgery bleeding model implemented in a nationwide otolaryngology emergencies bootcamp. — Sahovaler A, Eibling DE, Bruni I, Duvvuri U, MacNeil SD, Nichols AC et al. Journal of robotic surgery (2019)
    25. [25]
      New and Established Models of Limb Tourniquet Compared in Simulated First Aid. — Kragh JF, Newton NJ, Tan AR, Aden JK, Dubick MA Journal of special operations medicine : a peer reviewed journal for SOF medical professionals (2018)
    26. [26]
      Fibrin sealant agents: clinical application of TachoSil® in abdominal surgery. Six years experience in an emergency surgery department and review of the literature. — Fontana T, Silvestri V, Falco N, Venturelli P, Licari L, De Marco P et al. Il Giornale di chirurgia (2018)
    27. [27]
      The clinical effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of fractional CO — Ansari F, Sadeghi-Ghyassi F, Yaaghoobian B Journal of cosmetic and laser therapy : official publication of the European Society for Laser Dermatology (2018)
    28. [28]
      An Inexpensive Esophageal Balloon Tamponade Trainer. — Young TP, Kuntz HM, Alice B, Roper J, Kiemeney M The Journal of emergency medicine (2017)
    29. [29]
      Prehospital use of plasma: the blood bankers' perspective. — Hervig T, Doughty H, Ness P, Badloe JF, Berseus O, Glassberg E et al. Shock (Augusta, Ga.) (2014)
    30. [30]
      Dexmedetomidine decreases the oral mucosal blood flow. — Kawaai H, Yoshida K, Tanaka E, Togami K, Tada H, Ganzberg S et al. The British journal of oral & maxillofacial surgery (2013)
    31. [31]
      Pharmacologic tools to reduce bleeding in surgery. — Schulman S Hematology. American Society of Hematology. Education Program (2012)
    32. [32]
      Factors associated with failure to correct the international normalised ratio following fresh frozen plasma administration among patients treated for warfarin-related major bleeding. An analysis of electronic health records. — Menzin J, White LA, Friedman M, Nichols C, Menzin J, Hoesche J et al. Thrombosis and haemostasis (2012)
    33. [33]
      Laser beams interaction with polidocanol foam: molecular background. — Smarandache A Photomedicine and laser surgery (2012)
    34. [34]
      Contemporary perspectives on the management of posterior epistaxis: survey of canadian otolaryngologists. — Tam S, Rotenberg B Journal of otolaryngology - head & neck surgery = Le Journal d'oto-rhino-laryngologie et de chirurgie cervico-faciale (2011)
    35. [35]
      Neuroendovascular therapies in pediatric interventional radiology. — Abruzzo TA, Heran MK Techniques in vascular and interventional radiology (2011)
    36. [36]
      A potential competition bias in the detection of safety signals from spontaneous reporting databases. — Pariente A, Didailler M, Avillach P, Miremont-Salamé G, Fourrier-Reglat A, Haramburu F et al. Pharmacoepidemiology and drug safety (2010)
    37. [37]
      Interruptions and blood transfusion checks: lessons from the simulated operating room. — Liu D, Grundgeiger T, Sanderson PM, Jenkins SA, Leane TA Anesthesia and analgesia (2009)
    38. [38]
      Topical management of anterior epistaxis: a national survey. — Kara N, Spinou C, Gardiner Q The Journal of laryngology and otology (2009)
    39. [39]
      Learning and retention rates after training in posterior epistaxis management. — Lammers RL Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (2008)
    40. [40]
      Topical hemostatic agents: a review. — Palm MD, Altman JS Dermatologic surgery : official publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery [et al.] (2008)
    41. [41]
      Recurrence after surgery for varices in the groin is not dependent on body mass index. — Mouton WG, Bergner M, Zehnder T, von Wattenwyl R, Naef M, Wagner HE Swiss medical weekly (2008)
    42. [42]
      Red blood cell transfusion practices amongst Canadian anesthesiologists: a survey. — Turgeon AF, Fergusson DA, Doucette S, Khanna MP, Tinmouth A, Aziz A et al. Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie (2006)
    43. [43]
      Weaknesses in the classification criteria for antithrombotic-related major bleeding events. — Lagor C, Elliott CG, Stoddard GJ, Haug PJ Thrombosis and haemostasis (2005)
    44. [44]
      "My two-week-old daughter is throwing up blood". — Moustafa MH, Taylor M, Fletcher L Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (2005)
    45. [45]
      Cardiovascular consequences of weightlessness promote advances in clinical and trauma care. — Cooke WH, Convertino VA Current pharmaceutical biotechnology (2005)
    46. [46]
      Minimising intra-operative blood loss. — Davies MJ Transfusion and apheresis science : official journal of the World Apheresis Association : official journal of the European Society for Haemapheresis (2002)
    47. [47]
      Multicenter randomized controlled trial comparing different schedules of somatostatin in the treatment of acute variceal bleeding. — Moitinho E, Planas R, Bañares R, Albillos A, Ruiz-del-Arbol L, Gálvez C et al. Journal of hepatology (2001)
    48. [48]
      Acute renal failure due to retroperitoneal haematoma: a question of warfarin dispensation. — Waring WS, Cumming AD Scottish medical journal (1999)
    49. [49]
      Accuracy of blood loss determination by health care professionals. — Kolb KS, Day T, McCall WG CRNA : the clinical forum for nurse anesthetists (1999)
    50. [50]
      A new balloon-controlled temporary vascular clip. — Ueda S, Kitsuta Y, Umekawa J Surgical neurology (1997)
    51. [51]
      Bleeding from the lateral circumflex artery following total hip replacement, treated by embolization. — De Groof E, Violon D, Hermans P, Boghemans J Acta orthopaedica Belgica (1994)
    52. [52]
      The management of active variceal bleeding. — Westaby D Journal of hepatology (1993)
    53. [53]
      Familial varices of the colon and small bowel. — Atin V, Sabas JA, Cotano JR, Madariaga M, Galan D International journal of colorectal disease (1993)
    54. [54]
      Neonatal petechiae: strategies for nursing interventions. — Kimble C Pediatric nursing (1992)
    55. [55]
      Fetomaternal bleeding as a cause of recurrent fetal morbidity and mortality. — Catalano PM, Capeless EL Obstetrics and gynecology (1990)
    56. [56]
      Treatment of bleeding stomal varices. Report of a case and review of the literature. — Conte JV, Arcomano TA, Naficy MA, Holt RW Diseases of the colon and rectum (1990)
    57. [57]
      A case of endoscopic injection sclerotherapy for a bleeding duodenal varix. — Tsuji H, Okano H, Fujino H, Satoh T, Kodama T, Takino T et al. Gastroenterologia Japonica (1989)
    58. [58]
      A study on the properties of commercial thrombin preparations. — Suzuki S, Sakuragawa N Thrombosis research (1989)
    59. [59]
      The biological dynamics of lipoxygenase in rabbit red cells in the course of an experimental bleeding anaemia. Unexpected effects of the calcium ionophore A 23187. — Ludwig P, Höhne M, Kühn H, Schewe T, Rapoport SM Biomedica biochimica acta (1988)
    60. [60]
      Variceal bleeding caused by segmental portal hypertension in association with situs inversus and malrotation. — Stahl Madsen M, Sommer H, Petersen TH, Friis J, Moesgaard F Annales chirurgiae et gynaecologiae (1985)
    61. [61]
      Mesenteric node enlargement as a cause of intestinal variceal hemorrhage in nodular lymphoid hyperplasia. — Freiman JS, Gallagher ND Journal of clinical gastroenterology (1985)
    62. [62]
      Transcatheter embolization of the internal pudendal artery for control of massive perineal bleeding. — Tisnado J, Beachley MC, Cho SR, Coyne SS Cardiovascular and interventional radiology (1980)
    63. [63]
      Splenic vein obstruction with bleeding gastric varices: a diagnostic approach. — Fitzer PM, Stephens JR Virginia medical (1978)
    64. [64]
      Fibrinolysis activation after operation of spermatic cord. — Gaszyński W, Zalewski A, Goller B, Alexandrowicz A Anaesthesia, resuscitation, and intensive therapy (1975)
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