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Infectious Disease308 papers

Infection following immunization

Last edited: 4/16/2026

Overview

Infection following immunization (IFI) refers to adverse events that occur after vaccination, ranging from mild local reactions to severe systemic complications. These events are generally rare but can impact public trust and vaccination uptake. 4 5 20 26

Diagnosis

Clinical Presentation: Varied symptoms including local reactions (e.g., redness, swelling), systemic symptoms (e.g., fever, rash), and rare serious complications (e.g., anaphylaxis, autoimmune reactions). 4 20 26 32

Recommended Tests: No specific diagnostic tests; clinical evaluation often sufficient. Laboratory tests or imaging may be used in complex cases. 4 20

Grading: Severity often categorized based on clinical impact and response to treatment, though standardized grading systems vary by region. 4 20

Management

Supportive Care: Symptomatic treatment for mild reactions (e.g., antipyretics for fever). 4 20

Anaphylaxis: Immediate administration of epinephrine for severe allergic reactions. 4 26

Monitoring: Close observation for severe adverse events, especially in high-risk individuals. 4 20 32

Reporting: Mandatory reporting of serious adverse events to national surveillance systems (e.g., VAERS in the U.S., AEFI systems globally). 2 4 20 32

Special Populations

Pediatrics: Increased vigilance for rare but serious reactions like anaphylaxis and subcutaneous nodules. 20 24 32

Pregnancy: Limited data; focus on avoiding unnecessary vaccinations during pregnancy, with specific guidance for vaccines deemed safe (e.g., Tdap). 13 39

Elderly: Higher baseline comorbidities may complicate diagnosis and management; tailored monitoring for vaccine responses. 22 33

Comorbidities: Patients with pre-existing conditions may require individualized risk assessment before vaccination. 22 33

Key Recommendations

Mandatory Reporting: Healthcare providers must report serious adverse events following immunization to national surveillance systems to ensure data completeness and inform public health decisions. (Evidence: Strong 2 4)

Supportive Care Protocols: Implement standardized protocols for supportive care of mild to moderate adverse reactions to maintain patient comfort and trust. (Evidence: Moderate 4 20)

Enhanced Surveillance: Strengthen surveillance systems, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, to improve data completeness and reliability of AEFI reporting. (Evidence: Moderate 2)

Education and Training: Provide ongoing education for healthcare workers on recognizing and managing adverse events following immunization to improve reporting practices and patient care. (Evidence: Expert opinion 9 17)

Tailored Approaches for Special Populations: Develop and implement guidelines specific to pediatric, pregnant, elderly, and immunocompromised populations to address unique risks and management needs. (Evidence: Moderate 22 33)

References

1 Ojo-Aromokudu O, Mounier-Jack S, Kasstan-Dabush B. "It's Their Little Red Bible": Exploring Immigration and Immunization Journeys Through Nigerian Mother Relationships with Child Health Records in London. Medical anthropology 2025. link 2 Akter A, Tauheed I, Firoj MG, Shahnaz S, Rahaman MS, Hossen MT et al.. A comparative assessment of data completeness of the adverse events following immunization (AEFI) in DHIS2 at the early implementation stage in Bangladesh. Journal of health, population, and nutrition 2025. link 3 Krishnamurthy VK, Ilangovan K, Viswanathan V, Suresh S, Chandrasekar R, Chandramohan R et al.. Implementation of smartphone application for reporting adverse events following immunization by the treating doctors in tertiary care teaching hospitals in Chennai, India: Pilot and feasibility study. Vaccine 2025. link 4 Glover C, Deng L, Larter C, Brogan C, Richardson O, Huang YA et al.. Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2021. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) 2024. link 5 Okuyama M, Kamiya H, Kamidani S, Saitoh A. Adverse Event Following Immunization Monitoring System in Japan. The Pediatric infectious disease journal 2024. link 6 . Federal Funding Cuts Loom for Immunization Programs. The American journal of nursing 2023. link 7 Nguyen KH, Zhao R, Mullins C, Corlin L, Beninger P, Bednarczyk RA. Trends in vaccination schedules and up-to-date status of children 19-35 months, United States, 2015-2020. Vaccine 2023. link 8 Muñoz CE, Pham-Huy A, Pernica JM, Boucher FD, De Serres G, Vaudry W et al.. Factors associated with intention for revaccination among patients with adverse events following immunization. Vaccine 2023. link 9 Lv H, Pan X, Wang Y, Liang H, Yu H. Barriers to healthcare workers reporting adverse events following immunization in Zhejiang province, China. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2022. link 10 Arvind RK, Beerwala FA, Wali SC, Parihar AS, Ganachari MS, Bhandari R. A Randomized, Single Centered, Parallel and Open Labelled Interventional Study on Effectiveness of Clinical Pharmacists on Adverse Event Following Immunization (AEFI) in Pediatric Population. Current drug safety 2022. link 11 Omoleke SA, Getachew B, Isyaku A, Aliyu AB, Mustapha AM, Dansanda SM et al.. Understanding and experience of adverse event following immunization (AEFI) and its consequences among healthcare providers in Kebbi State, Nigeria: a qualitative study. BMC health services research 2022. link 12 Muñoz CE, MacDonald B, Pham-Huy A, Vaudry W, Pernica JM, Boucher FD et al.. Revaccination and Adverse Event Recurrence in Patients with Adverse Events following Immunization. The Journal of pediatrics 2022. link 13 Brown V. Select immunizations for adult women. Menopause (New York, N.Y.) 2021. link 14 He HQ, Wang L, Li JR, Ma QL, Yu WZ. [Impact of emergencies on immunization program, risk assessment and response recommendations]. Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive medicine] 2021. link 15 Chepkurui V, Amponsah-Dacosta E, Haddison EC, Kagina BM. Characterization of National Immunization Programs in the Context of Public Health Emergencies: A Case Study of 13 Countries in the WHO Africa Region. Frontiers in public health 2021. link 16 Irigoyen MM, Leib SM, Paoletti AM, DeLago CW. Timeliness of Immunizations in CenteringParenting. Academic pediatrics 2021. link 17 Thomas RA, Rajan Joseph M, Castilloux AM, Moride Y. Understanding reporting practices and perceptions of barriers in adverse events following immunisation surveillance: A cross-sectional survey of paediatricians in Kerala, India. Vaccine 2021. link 18 Johri M, Chandra D, Kone KG, Sylvestre MP, Mathur AK, Harper S et al.. Social and Behavior Change Communication Interventions Delivered Face-to-Face and by a Mobile Phone to Strengthen Vaccination Uptake and Improve Child Health in Rural India: Randomized Pilot Study. JMIR mHealth and uHealth 2020. link 19 Katsuta T, Moser CA, Feemster KA, Saitoh A, Offit PA. Comparison of immunization systems in Japan and the United States - What can be learned?. Vaccine 2020. link 20 Silcock R, Crawford NW, Selvaraj G, McMinn A, Danchin M, Lazzaro T et al.. Subcutaneous nodules following immunization in children; in Victoria, Australia from 2007 to 2016. Vaccine 2020. link 21 Dey A, Wang H, Quinn H, Pillsbury A, Glover C, Hickie M et al.. Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia: annual report, 2018. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) 2020. link 22 Sychareun V, Rowlands L, Vilay P, Durham J, Morgan A. The determinants of vaccination in a semi-rural area of Vientiane City, Lao People's Democratic Republic: a qualitative study. Health research policy and systems 2019. link 23 Dey A, Wang H, Quinn H, Hiam R, Wood N, Beard F et al.. Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2017. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) 2019. link 24 Silcock R, Crawford NW, Perrett KP. Subcutaneous nodules: an important adverse event following immunization. Expert review of vaccines 2019. link 25 Weithorn LA, Reiss DR. Legal approaches to promoting parental compliance with childhood immunization recommendations. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2018. link 26 Hobeika E, Usta IM, Helou R, Jabak S, El Kak F, Nassar AH. Practice and attitudes towards immunization among Lebanese obstetricians and gynecologists. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2018. link 27 Noh JW, Kim YM, Akram N, Yoo KB, Park J, Cheon J et al.. Factors affecting complete and timely childhood immunization coverage in Sindh, Pakistan; A secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data. PloS one 2018. link 28 Chantler T, Karafillakis E, Wodajo S, Dechasa Demissie S, Sile B, Mohammed S et al.. 'We All Work Together to Vaccinate the Child': A Formative Evaluation of a Community-Engagement Strategy Aimed at Closing the Immunization Gap in North-West Ethiopia. International journal of environmental research and public health 2018. link 29 Raza O, Lodhi FS, Morasae EK, Majdzadeh R. Differential achievements in childhood immunization across geographical regions of Pakistan: analysis of wealth-related inequality. International journal for equity in health 2018. link 30 Burroway R, Hargrove A. Education is the antidote: Individual- and community-level effects of maternal education on child immunizations in Nigeria. Social science & medicine (1982) 2018. link 31 Kirupakaran J, Meloche C, Upfal M. Practices and Attitudes of Michigan-Based Occupational Physicians Regarding Adult Immunization. Journal of occupational and environmental medicine 2018. link 32 Baxter CM, Clothier HJ, Perrett KP. Potential immediate hypersensitivity reactions following immunization in preschool aged children in Victoria, Australia. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2018. link 33 Hagan JE, Gaonkar N, Doshi V, Patni A, Vyas S, Mazumdar V et al.. Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of private sector immunization service providers in Gujarat, India. Vaccine 2018. link 34 Vijayan V. Individualizing immunization for international travelers. The Journal of family practice 2017. link 35 McClenathan BM, Stewart DA, Spooner CE, Pathmasiri WW, Burgess JP, McRitchie SL et al.. Metabolites as biomarkers of adverse reactions following vaccination: A pilot study using nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomics. Vaccine 2017. link 36 Griffith R. Obtaining consent for the immunization of adults. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2016. link 37 Griffith R. Can the courts order that a child be immunised?. British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing) 2016. link 38 O'Leary ST, Pyrzanowski J, Brewer SE, Dickinson LM, Dempsey AF. Evidence-based vaccination strategies in obstetrics and gynecology settings: Current practices and methods for assessment. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2016. link 39 Mazzoni SE, Brewer SE, Pyrzanowski JL, Durfee MJ, Dickinson LM, Barnard JG et al.. Effect of a multi-modal intervention on immunization rates in obstetrics and gynecology clinics. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology 2016. link 40 Silva SS, Oliveira VC, Ribeiro HC, Alves TG, Cavalcante RB, Guimarães EA. Analysis of adverse events following immunization in Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2011: a cross-sectional study. Epidemiologia e servicos de saude : revista do Sistema Unico de Saude do Brasil 2016. link 41 Ogunyemi RA, Odusanya OO. A survey of knowledge and reporting practices of primary healthcare workers on adverse experiences following immunisation in alimosho local government area, Lagos. The Nigerian postgraduate medical journal 2016. link 42 Helfert SM. Historical aspects of immunization and vaccine safety communication. Current drug safety 2015. link 43 Mahajan D, Dey A, Cook J, Harvey B, Menzies R, Macartney K. Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2013. Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report 2015. link 44 Li R, McNeil MM, Pickering S, Pemberton MR, Duran LL, Collins LC et al.. Military healthcare providers reporting of adverse events following immunizations to the vaccine adverse event reporting system. Military medicine 2014. link 45 Machingaidze S, Wiysonge CS, Hussey GD. Strengthening the expanded programme on immunization in Africa: looking beyond 2015. PLoS medicine 2013. link 46 Lantos JD. Why money will not cure under-immunization. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2013. link 47 Baxter D, Guppy MJ. NIC23. Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics 2013. link 48 Verguet S, Jassat W, Bertram MY, Tollman SM, Murray CJ, Jamison DT et al.. Impact of supplemental immunisation activity (SIA) campaigns on health systems: findings from South Africa. Journal of epidemiology and community health 2013. link 49 Chitkara AJ, Thacker N, Vashishtha VM, Bansal CP, Gupta SG. Adverse event following immunization (AEFI) surveillance in India, position paper of Indian Academy of Pediatrics,2013. Indian pediatrics 2013. link 50 Hu Y, Li Q, Lin L, Chen E, Chen Y, Qi X. Surveillance for adverse events following immunization from 2008 to 2011 in Zhejiang Province, China. Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI 2013. link 51 Link-Gelles R, Chamberlain AT, Schulkin J, Ault K, Whitney E, Seib K et al.. Missed opportunities: a national survey of obstetricians about attitudes on maternal and infant immunization. Maternal and child health journal 2012. link 52 Rowhani-Rahbar A, Klein NP, Dekker CL, Edwards KM, Marchant CD, Vellozzi C et al.. Biologically plausible and evidence-based risk intervals in immunization safety research. Vaccine 2012. link 53 Mahajan D, Cook J, Dey A, Macartney K, Menzies RI. Annual report: Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia, 2011. Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report 2012. link 54 . General recommendations on immunization --- recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports 2011. link 55 Nulty D. Is it ethical for a medical practice to dismiss a family based on their decision not to have their child immunized?. JONA'S healthcare law, ethics and regulation 2011. link 56 Aagaard L, Hansen EW, Hansen EH. Adverse events following immunization in children: retrospective analysis of spontaneous reports over a decade. European journal of clinical pharmacology 2011. link 57 Williams SE, Klein NP, Halsey N, Dekker CL, Baxter RP, Marchant CD et al.. Overview of the Clinical Consult Case Review of adverse events following immunization: Clinical Immunization Safety Assessment (CISA) network 2004-2009. Vaccine 2011. link 58 Williams W, Lowery NE, Lyalin D, Lambrecht N, Riddick S, Sutliff C et al.. Development and utilization of best practice operational guidelines for immunization information systems. Journal of public health management and practice : JPHMP 2011. link 59 Conde C. Shot or not shot? Adult ImmTrac Would Know. Texas medicine 2010. link 60 Al Awaidy S, Bawikar S, Prakash KR, Al Rawahi B, Mohammed AJ. Surveillance of adverse events following immunization: 10 years' experience in Oman. Eastern Mediterranean health journal = La revue de sante de la Mediterranee orientale = al-Majallah al-sihhiyah li-sharq al-mutawassit 2010. link 61 Wood NJ. The role of the Immunisation Adverse Events Clinic at The Children's Hospital at Westmead. New South Wales public health bulletin 2010. link 62 . Adult immunization. Treatment guidelines from the Medical Letter 2009. link 63 Leddy MA, Anderson BL, Power ML, Gall S, Gonik B, Schulkin J. Changes in and current status of obstetrician-gynecologists' knowledge, attitudes, and practice regarding immunization. Obstetrical & gynecological survey 2009. link 64 Power ML, Leddy MA, Anderson BL, Gall SA, Gonik B, Schulkin J. Obstetrician-gynecologists' practices and perceived knowledge regarding immunization. American journal of preventive medicine 2009. link 65 Menzies R, Mahajan D, Gold MS, Roomiani I, McIntyre P, Lawrence G. Annual report: surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia, 2008. Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report 2009. link 66 Kohl KS, Magnus M, Ball R, Halsey N, Shadomy S, Farley TA. Applicability, reliability, sensitivity, and specificity of six Brighton Collaboration standardized case definitions for adverse events following immunization. Vaccine 2008. link 67 Lawrence G, Gold MS, Hill R, Deeks S, Glasswell A, McIntyre PB. Annual report: surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia, 2007. Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report 2008. link 68 Tonks A. Oral vaccines: A spoonful of antigen. BMJ (Clinical research ed.) 2007. link 69 Návar AM, Halsey NA, Carter TC, Montgomery MP, Salmon DA. Prenatal immunization education the pediatric prenatal visit and routine obstetric care. American journal of preventive medicine 2007. link 70 McNeil MM, Ma G, Aranas A, Payne DC, Rose CE. A comparative assessment of immunization records in the Defense Medical Surveillance System and the Vaccine Adverse Event Reporting System. Vaccine 2007. link 71 Wilson K, Barakat M, Mills E, Ritvo P, Boon H, Vohra S et al.. Addressing the emergence of pediatric vaccination concerns: recommendations from a Canadian policy analysis. Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique 2006. link 72 Lawrence GL, Boyd I, McIntyre PB, Isaacs D. Annual report: surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia, 2004. Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report 2005. link 73 Morgan R, Paul SM, Palley R. Challenges and strategies for improving pediatric immunizations in New Jersey. New Jersey medicine : the journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 2004. link 74 Lawrence G, Boyd I, McIntyre P, Isaacs D. Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation: Australia 2002 to 2003. 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Original source

[1]
"It's Their Little Red Bible": Exploring Immigration and Immunization Journeys Through Nigerian Mother Relationships with Child Health Records in London. — Ojo-Aromokudu O, Mounier-Jack S, Kasstan-Dabush B Medical anthropology (2025)
[2]
A comparative assessment of data completeness of the adverse events following immunization (AEFI) in DHIS2 at the early implementation stage in Bangladesh. — Akter A, Tauheed I, Firoj MG, Shahnaz S, Rahaman MS, Hossen MT et al. Journal of health, population, and nutrition (2025)
[3]
Implementation of smartphone application for reporting adverse events following immunization by the treating doctors in tertiary care teaching hospitals in Chennai, India: Pilot and feasibility study. — Krishnamurthy VK, Ilangovan K, Viswanathan V, Suresh S, Chandrasekar R, Chandramohan R et al. Vaccine (2025)
[4]
Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2021. — Glover C, Deng L, Larter C, Brogan C, Richardson O, Huang YA et al. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) (2024)
[5]
Adverse Event Following Immunization Monitoring System in Japan. — Okuyama M, Kamiya H, Kamidani S, Saitoh A The Pediatric infectious disease journal (2024)
[6]
Federal Funding Cuts Loom for Immunization Programs. The American journal of nursing (2023)
[7]
Trends in vaccination schedules and up-to-date status of children 19-35 months, United States, 2015-2020. — Nguyen KH, Zhao R, Mullins C, Corlin L, Beninger P, Bednarczyk RA Vaccine (2023)
[8]
Factors associated with intention for revaccination among patients with adverse events following immunization. — Muñoz CE, Pham-Huy A, Pernica JM, Boucher FD, De Serres G, Vaudry W et al. Vaccine (2023)
[9]
Barriers to healthcare workers reporting adverse events following immunization in Zhejiang province, China. — Lv H, Pan X, Wang Y, Liang H, Yu H Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2022)
[10]
A Randomized, Single Centered, Parallel and Open Labelled Interventional Study on Effectiveness of Clinical Pharmacists on Adverse Event Following Immunization (AEFI) in Pediatric Population. — Arvind RK, Beerwala FA, Wali SC, Parihar AS, Ganachari MS, Bhandari R Current drug safety (2022)
[11]
Understanding and experience of adverse event following immunization (AEFI) and its consequences among healthcare providers in Kebbi State, Nigeria: a qualitative study. — Omoleke SA, Getachew B, Isyaku A, Aliyu AB, Mustapha AM, Dansanda SM et al. BMC health services research (2022)
[12]
Revaccination and Adverse Event Recurrence in Patients with Adverse Events following Immunization. — Muñoz CE, MacDonald B, Pham-Huy A, Vaudry W, Pernica JM, Boucher FD et al. The Journal of pediatrics (2022)
[13]
Select immunizations for adult women. — Brown V Menopause (New York, N.Y.) (2021)
[14]
[Impact of emergencies on immunization program, risk assessment and response recommendations]. — He HQ, Wang L, Li JR, Ma QL, Yu WZ Zhonghua yu fang yi xue za zhi [Chinese journal of preventive medicine] (2021)
[15]
Characterization of National Immunization Programs in the Context of Public Health Emergencies: A Case Study of 13 Countries in the WHO Africa Region. — Chepkurui V, Amponsah-Dacosta E, Haddison EC, Kagina BM Frontiers in public health (2021)
[16]
Timeliness of Immunizations in CenteringParenting. — Irigoyen MM, Leib SM, Paoletti AM, DeLago CW Academic pediatrics (2021)
[17]
Understanding reporting practices and perceptions of barriers in adverse events following immunisation surveillance: A cross-sectional survey of paediatricians in Kerala, India. — Thomas RA, Rajan Joseph M, Castilloux AM, Moride Y Vaccine (2021)
[18]
Social and Behavior Change Communication Interventions Delivered Face-to-Face and by a Mobile Phone to Strengthen Vaccination Uptake and Improve Child Health in Rural India: Randomized Pilot Study. — Johri M, Chandra D, Kone KG, Sylvestre MP, Mathur AK, Harper S et al. JMIR mHealth and uHealth (2020)
[19]
Comparison of immunization systems in Japan and the United States - What can be learned? — Katsuta T, Moser CA, Feemster KA, Saitoh A, Offit PA Vaccine (2020)
[20]
Subcutaneous nodules following immunization in children; in Victoria, Australia from 2007 to 2016. — Silcock R, Crawford NW, Selvaraj G, McMinn A, Danchin M, Lazzaro T et al. Vaccine (2020)
[21]
Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia: annual report, 2018. — Dey A, Wang H, Quinn H, Pillsbury A, Glover C, Hickie M et al. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) (2020)
[22]
The determinants of vaccination in a semi-rural area of Vientiane City, Lao People's Democratic Republic: a qualitative study. — Sychareun V, Rowlands L, Vilay P, Durham J, Morgan A Health research policy and systems (2019)
[23]
Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2017. — Dey A, Wang H, Quinn H, Hiam R, Wood N, Beard F et al. Communicable diseases intelligence (2018) (2019)
[24]
Subcutaneous nodules: an important adverse event following immunization. — Silcock R, Crawford NW, Perrett KP Expert review of vaccines (2019)
[25]
Legal approaches to promoting parental compliance with childhood immunization recommendations. — Weithorn LA, Reiss DR Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2018)
[26]
Practice and attitudes towards immunization among Lebanese obstetricians and gynecologists. — Hobeika E, Usta IM, Helou R, Jabak S, El Kak F, Nassar AH Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2018)
[27]
Factors affecting complete and timely childhood immunization coverage in Sindh, Pakistan; A secondary analysis of cross-sectional survey data. — Noh JW, Kim YM, Akram N, Yoo KB, Park J, Cheon J et al. PloS one (2018)
[28]
'We All Work Together to Vaccinate the Child': A Formative Evaluation of a Community-Engagement Strategy Aimed at Closing the Immunization Gap in North-West Ethiopia. — Chantler T, Karafillakis E, Wodajo S, Dechasa Demissie S, Sile B, Mohammed S et al. International journal of environmental research and public health (2018)
[29]
Differential achievements in childhood immunization across geographical regions of Pakistan: analysis of wealth-related inequality. — Raza O, Lodhi FS, Morasae EK, Majdzadeh R International journal for equity in health (2018)
[30]
Education is the antidote: Individual- and community-level effects of maternal education on child immunizations in Nigeria. — Burroway R, Hargrove A Social science & medicine (1982) (2018)
[31]
Practices and Attitudes of Michigan-Based Occupational Physicians Regarding Adult Immunization. — Kirupakaran J, Meloche C, Upfal M Journal of occupational and environmental medicine (2018)
[32]
Potential immediate hypersensitivity reactions following immunization in preschool aged children in Victoria, Australia. — Baxter CM, Clothier HJ, Perrett KP Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2018)
[33]
Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of private sector immunization service providers in Gujarat, India. — Hagan JE, Gaonkar N, Doshi V, Patni A, Vyas S, Mazumdar V et al. Vaccine (2018)
[34]
Individualizing immunization for international travelers. — Vijayan V The Journal of family practice (2017)
[35]
Metabolites as biomarkers of adverse reactions following vaccination: A pilot study using nuclear magnetic resonance metabolomics. — McClenathan BM, Stewart DA, Spooner CE, Pathmasiri WW, Burgess JP, McRitchie SL et al. Vaccine (2017)
[36]
Obtaining consent for the immunization of adults. — Griffith R Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2016)
[37]
Can the courts order that a child be immunised? — Griffith R British journal of nursing (Mark Allen Publishing) (2016)
[38]
Evidence-based vaccination strategies in obstetrics and gynecology settings: Current practices and methods for assessment. — O'Leary ST, Pyrzanowski J, Brewer SE, Dickinson LM, Dempsey AF Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2016)
[39]
Effect of a multi-modal intervention on immunization rates in obstetrics and gynecology clinics. — Mazzoni SE, Brewer SE, Pyrzanowski JL, Durfee MJ, Dickinson LM, Barnard JG et al. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology (2016)
[40]
Analysis of adverse events following immunization in Minas Gerais, Brazil, 2011: a cross-sectional study. — Silva SS, Oliveira VC, Ribeiro HC, Alves TG, Cavalcante RB, Guimarães EA Epidemiologia e servicos de saude : revista do Sistema Unico de Saude do Brasil (2016)
[41]
A survey of knowledge and reporting practices of primary healthcare workers on adverse experiences following immunisation in alimosho local government area, Lagos. — Ogunyemi RA, Odusanya OO The Nigerian postgraduate medical journal (2016)
[42]
Historical aspects of immunization and vaccine safety communication. — Helfert SM Current drug safety (2015)
[43]
Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia annual report, 2013. — Mahajan D, Dey A, Cook J, Harvey B, Menzies R, Macartney K Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report (2015)
[44]
Military healthcare providers reporting of adverse events following immunizations to the vaccine adverse event reporting system. — Li R, McNeil MM, Pickering S, Pemberton MR, Duran LL, Collins LC et al. Military medicine (2014)
[45]
Strengthening the expanded programme on immunization in Africa: looking beyond 2015. — Machingaidze S, Wiysonge CS, Hussey GD PLoS medicine (2013)
[46]
Why money will not cure under-immunization. — Lantos JD Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2013)
[47]
NIC23. — Baxter D, Guppy MJ Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2013)
[48]
Impact of supplemental immunisation activity (SIA) campaigns on health systems: findings from South Africa. — Verguet S, Jassat W, Bertram MY, Tollman SM, Murray CJ, Jamison DT et al. Journal of epidemiology and community health (2013)
[49]
Adverse event following immunization (AEFI) surveillance in India, position paper of Indian Academy of Pediatrics,2013. — Chitkara AJ, Thacker N, Vashishtha VM, Bansal CP, Gupta SG Indian pediatrics (2013)
[50]
Surveillance for adverse events following immunization from 2008 to 2011 in Zhejiang Province, China. — Hu Y, Li Q, Lin L, Chen E, Chen Y, Qi X Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI (2013)
[51]
Missed opportunities: a national survey of obstetricians about attitudes on maternal and infant immunization. — Link-Gelles R, Chamberlain AT, Schulkin J, Ault K, Whitney E, Seib K et al. Maternal and child health journal (2012)
[52]
Biologically plausible and evidence-based risk intervals in immunization safety research. — Rowhani-Rahbar A, Klein NP, Dekker CL, Edwards KM, Marchant CD, Vellozzi C et al. Vaccine (2012)
[53]
Annual report: Surveillance of adverse events following immunisation in Australia, 2011. — Mahajan D, Cook J, Dey A, Macartney K, Menzies RI Communicable diseases intelligence quarterly report (2012)
[54]
General recommendations on immunization --- recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports (2011)
[55]
Is it ethical for a medical practice to dismiss a family based on their decision not to have their child immunized? — Nulty D JONA'S healthcare law, ethics and regulation (2011)
[56]
Adverse events following immunization in children: retrospective analysis of spontaneous reports over a decade. — Aagaard L, Hansen EW, Hansen EH European journal of clinical pharmacology (2011)
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