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Cardiology864 papers

Giant cell pneumonia

Last edited: 4/23/2026

Overview

Giant cell arteritis (GCA) is a systemic vasculitis primarily affecting medium and large arteries, particularly the extracranial branches of the carotid arteries, often leading to significant morbidity including vision loss and cardiovascular complications. 22 40

Diagnosis

Clinical Criteria: Age over 50 years, new-onset headache, temporal artery tenderness/nodules, elevated ESR/CRP. 1 22

Imaging: Temporal artery ultrasound showing hypoechoic halo or abnormal wall thickening. 51 74

Biopsy: Temporal artery biopsy remains the gold standard, though non-invasive methods are increasingly utilized. 9 57

FDG-PET/CT: Useful in patients on glucocorticoids, with delayed imaging enhancing diagnostic accuracy. 36 43

Ophthalmic Involvement: Anterior ischemic optic neuropathy (AION) and uveitis can be indicative. 23 61

Management

First-Line Treatment: High-dose glucocorticoids (e.g., prednisone 40-60 mg/day initially). 40 50

Adjunctive Therapy: Tocilizumab (IL-6 receptor inhibitor) for refractory cases or steroid-sparing strategies. 11 43

Tapering: Gradual tapering over 26 weeks under close monitoring to prevent relapse. 50

Monitoring: Regular assessment of inflammatory markers (ESR, CRP) and imaging for aortic dilation. 18 41

Multidisciplinary Approach: Fast-track clinics improve visual outcomes and early diagnosis. 48 24

Special Populations

Elderly: Commonly affected; careful monitoring for complications like aortic dilation and cranial ischemia. 1 40

Comorbidities: Lower frequency of comorbidities prior to GCA onset suggests a clearer etiology focus. 68

Pediatrics: Rare; case reports indicate unique presentations requiring tailored management. 33

Pregnancy: Limited data; management typically involves balancing maternal and fetal risks with cautious steroid use. 46

Key Recommendations

Early Diagnosis and Aggressive Initial Treatment: Initiate high-dose glucocorticoids promptly upon suspicion to prevent irreversible complications. (Evidence: Strong 1 40)

Use of Biopsy and Non-Invasive Imaging: Combine temporal artery biopsy with ultrasound and FDG-PET/CT for accurate diagnosis, especially in glucocorticoid-treated patients. (Evidence: Moderate 57 36)

Regular Monitoring for Complications: Regularly monitor inflammatory markers and perform imaging to assess for aortic dilation and other vascular complications. (Evidence: Moderate 18 41)

Consider Biologic Agents for Refractory Cases: Use tocilizumab for patients who do not respond adequately to glucocorticoids to reduce steroid exposure. (Evidence: Moderate 11)

Implement Fast-Track Clinics: Utilize multidisciplinary fast-track clinics to enhance early diagnosis and management outcomes. (Evidence: Expert opinion 48)

References

Showing 100 most recent of 817 indexed papers.

1 Ninan J, Leung J, Liew D, Lester S, Stanhope J, McNeil J et al.. Current clinical practice trends in giant cell arteritis diagnosis and management: a national survey of Australian rheumatologists and rheumatology trainees. Internal medicine journal 2026. link 2 Dhivagaran T, Butt FR, Nasri D, Maini P, Lin E, Tao BK et al.. Prevalence of diplopia among giant cell arteritis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eye (London, England) 2026. link 3 Ichimata S, Yoshinaga T, Sato M, Katoh N, Kametani F, Morinaga Y et al.. Giant Cell Arteritis With Medin-Derived Amyloid (AMed) Deposition in a Patient With COVID-19: An Autopsy Case. Pathology international 2026. link 4 Dumont A, Espitia O, Samson M, Comarmond-Ortoli C, Sailler L, Berthoux E et al.. Complete PET/CT extinction and subsequent risk of aortic dilation in patients with giant cell arteritis-related large vessel vasculitis treated with tocilizumab. RMD open 2026. link 5 Avasarala J, Gangadhara S, Bobadilla J, Chadha R. Every minute blinds: Temporal artery ultrasound in the real-time diagnosis of stroke of the eye. The American journal of emergency medicine 2026. link 6 Muayad J, Arogundade EO, Jaiswal S, Ahmed IIK, Lee AG. Racial differences in stroke, blindness, and mortality among Black versus non-Black patients with giant cell arteritis: an international cohort study. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie 2026. link 7 Xu S, Jiemy WF, Zhang A, Walinga F, Nijenhuis M, Hensema E et al.. Crosstalk between macrophages and fibroblasts contributes to inflammation and damage in giant cell arteritis. Rheumatology (Oxford, England) 2026. link 8 Bond M, Bosch P, Kuenzer T, Juche A, Bastian H, Schmidt WA. Is there a seasonal pattern in giant cell arteritis? Revisiting the evidence in a large monocentric cohort over 30 years. Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism 2026. link 9 Slagle G, Cartwright MJ. Zig-Zag Incision for Temporal Artery Biopsy: Technique and Rationale. Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery 2026. link 10 von der Emde L, Petzinna SM, Herwig-Carl MC, Adamson MS, Bauer CJ, Esser J et al.. Advances in diagnosing and treating giant cell arteritis: New hope for arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. Survey of ophthalmology 2026. link 11 Loricera J, Molina-Collada J, Nieto JC, Sánchez-Lucas M, Silva-Díaz MT, Moya P et al.. Switching from Originator Tocilizumab to Biosimilar in Giant Cell Arteritis: Evaluation of Effectiveness and Safety in a Multicenter Cohort of 38 Patients. Drugs & aging 2026. link 12 Haddad A, Gazitt T, Batheesh A, Feld J, Finkelstein NY, Elias M et al.. Patient characteristics, disease manifestations and diagnostic findings of consecutive patients suspected of Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) - retrospective experience from a fast-track clinic in Israel. Clinical rheumatology 2026. link 13 Port K, Shon IH, Ayesa S, Langford R, Bennett O, Csillag A et al.. The real-world experience of combined cranial and large vessel . Clinical rheumatology 2026. link 14 Rubinsztajn A, Parreau S, Sailler L, de Boysson H, Espitia O, Sève P et al.. Characteristics of patients with major relapse in giant cell arteritis: a multicenter case-control study. Clinical rheumatology 2026. link 15 Huang BQ, Tian YX, Li LJ. Identification of therapeutic targets for giant cell arteritis through integrated analysis of multi-omics datasets. Hepatobiliary & pancreatic diseases international : HBPD INT 2026. link 16 Ke Z, Feng D, Xu S, Liu M, Xu L. Study on the chemokine CXCL10 in serum for its value in GCA-PMR spectrum disease stratification. Clinical rheumatology 2026. link 17 Luo Y, Yang F, He Y, Lin J, Chen W. Cellular senescence in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: From mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. European journal of clinical investigation 2026. link 18 Marvisi C, Guggenberger KV, Besutti G, Werner RA, Mancuso P, Serfling SE et al.. The influence of baseline aortitis on aortic dilation risk in GCA: a multicentre imaging study. Rheumatology (Oxford, England) 2026. link 19 Glynn T, Leech MT, Goergen SK, Lin E, Toodayan N, Junckerstorff R. A Diagnostic Headache. The Medical journal of Australia 2026. link 20 Bertens JPF, Oskam LC, van Bon L, van der Heijden CDCC. Recurrent vertebrobasilar stroke in giant cell arteritis associated with progressive prostate carcinoma: a case report and literature review. Clinical rheumatology 2026. link 21 Cheng T, Chen J, Shan X, Jia B, Sang S, Wang Y et al.. Potential Key Genes for Giant Cell Arteritis Revealed Based on Single-Cell Sequencing and Mendelian Randomization Analysis. International archives of allergy and immunology 2026. link 22 Ryalat A, Khraisat O, Abukhaled Y, Almasri A. Updates on Giant Cell Arteritis. Neurologic clinics 2026. link 23 Brenac G, Bernard A, Lemogne B, Greigert H, Ramon A, Audia S et al.. Orbital MRI for diagnosing giant cell arteritis in cases of anterior ischaemic optic neuropathy. RMD open 2026. link 24 Beirão TMBDM, Rua C, Silva C, Patela M, Vieira R, Abelha-Aleixo J et al.. Fast-Track Clinics and Visual Outcomes in Giant Cell Arteritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of clinical rheumatology : practical reports on rheumatic & musculoskeletal diseases 2026. link 25 Ansalone C, McAllister S, Pickerill ES, Zhang L, Gemperline DC, Peacock A et al.. Spatial profiling of giant cell arteritis tissues reveals immune heterogeneity and potential predictors of glucocorticoid response. Annals of the rheumatic diseases 2026. link 26 Gernert M, Schmalzing M, Fröhlich M, Zhi Y, Strunz PP, Labinsky H et al.. . Frontiers in immunology 2026. [link 27 Patel S, Okaj I, Scott J, Atwal S, Stark C, Tahir R et al.. Intracranial GCA: a comprehensive systematic review. Rheumatology (Oxford, England) 2025. link 28 Sverdlichenko I, Xie JS, Lu B, Tao B, Lai A, Naidu S et al.. Atypical Signs and Symptoms of Giant Cell Arteritis: A Systematic Review. Journal of general internal medicine 2025. link 29 Schremmer T, Dejaco C, Recker F, Aschwanden M, Boumans D, Bruyn GA et al.. OMERACT GCA phantom project: validation of a 3D-printed ultrasound training phantom for diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. RMD open 2025. link 30 Ha JW, Song JJ, Park YB, Lee SW. Validation of the 2022 ACR/EULAR classification criteria for giant cell arteritis in Korean patients with giant cell arteritis. Modern rheumatology 2025. link 31 Bolha L, Hočevar A, Jurčić V. Current state of epigenetics in giant cell arteritis: Focus on microRNA dysregulation. Autoimmunity reviews 2025. link 32 Satomi H, Kobayashi M, Ito I, Asano K, Makino M, Kawaguchi K et al.. Predominance of T-bet-positive Th1 cells in infiltrating T-lymphocytes in most of active arteritis lesions of giant cell arteritis. Virchows Archiv : an international journal of pathology 2025. link 33 Kuzyk Y, Zerbino D, Kovalyk O. Giant cell aortitis combined with arteritis and coarctation of the aorta in 3.5-month child: A case report and literature review. Cardiovascular pathology : the official journal of the Society for Cardiovascular Pathology 2025. link 34 Amar Muñoz HM, Molina-Collada J, Castrejón I, Monjo-Henry I, Fernández-Fernández E, Álvaro-Gracia JM et al.. Different giant cell arteritis phenotypes may present distinct types of ischaemic complications. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2025. link 35 Inukai R, Akiyama M, Yoshimoto K, Wakasugi S, Matsuno Y, Ishigaki S et al.. Cytotoxic CX3CR1+ T cells drive vascular inflammation in giant cell arteritis but not in Takayasu's arteritis. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2025. link 36 Aldasoro V, Betech-Antar V, Castañeda S, de Miguel E, Rosales JJ, García-Velloso MJ. Diagnosis of giant cell arteritis by 18F-FDG PET/CT in patients on glucocorticoid therapy: importance of delayed imaging. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2025. link 37 Ibrahim HE, De Bari C. Giant cell arteritis: update on pathogenesis and clinical implications. Current opinion in rheumatology 2025. link 38 Kudo Y, Hara K, Murayama M, Kaga S, Omotehara S, Iwai T et al.. A Novel Ultrasound Finding for the Diagnosis of Giant Cell Arteritis: Comparison With Temporal Artery Biopsy Findings. Journal of clinical ultrasound : JCU 2025. link 39 Hirose K, Kanzawa Y, Sano N, Tsuruta K, Mizuki S, Nakajima T et al.. Self-limited Giant Cell Arteritis: The Dilemma Associated with Its Diagnosis and Treatment. Internal medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2025. link 40 de Boysson H, Devauchelle-Pensec V, Agard C, André M, Bienvenu B, Bonnotte B et al.. French protocol for the diagnosis and management of giant cell arteritis. La Revue de medecine interne 2025. link 41 Rathore SS, Srikaram P, Gudena S, Manoj S, Allam SR, Hatamleh MA et al.. Risk of cardiovascular events in giant cell arteritis: systematic review and meta-analysis. Hellenic journal of cardiology : HJC = Hellenike kardiologike epitheorese 2025. link 42 Nadim B, Blassel E, Sheets AR, Mitchell RN, Aghayev A. Multimodality imaging of pulmonary artery aneurysms due to giant cell arteritis: a case series. The international journal of cardiovascular imaging 2025. link 43 Samson M, Dasgupta B, Sammel AM, Salvarani C, Pagnoux C, Hajj-Ali R et al.. Targeting interleukin-6 pathways in giant cell arteritis management: A narrative review of evidence. Autoimmunity reviews 2025. link 44 Naderi N, Mohammad AJ, Wadström K, Turesson C. Giant cells in temporal artery biopsies and the risk of large-vessel involvement in patients with giant cell arteritis. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2025. link 45 Laburthe S, Ly KH, Dumonteil S, Ratti N, Desvaux E, Gondran G et al.. Upper respiratory tract and orofacial manifestations of new-onset giant cell arteritis: results from a large, prospective inception cohort study. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2025. link 46 de Boysson H, Devauchelle-Pensec V, Agard C, André M, Bienvenu B, Bonnotte B et al.. Use of immunosuppressants and biologics in giant cell arteritis: Recommendations of the French Study Group for Large Vessel Vasculitis (GEFA). La Revue de medecine interne 2025. link 47 Dejaco C, Kerschbaumer A, Aletaha D, Bond M, Hysa E, Camellino D et al.. Treat-to-target recommendations in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica. Annals of the rheumatic diseases 2024. link 48 Schmidt WA, Czihal M, Gernert M, Hartung W, Hellmich B, Ohrndorf S et al.. Recommendations for defining giant cell arteritis fast-track clinics. English version. Zeitschrift fur Rheumatologie 2024. link 49 Khalique MI, Arjunan M, Wood S, Mackie SL. The spectrum of giant cell arteritis through a rheumatology lens. Eye (London, England) 2024. link 50 Muratore F, Marvisi C, Castrignanò P, Croci S, Bonacini M, Boiardi L et al.. Effectiveness and safety of a 26-week taper regimen of glucocorticoid in GCA patients: Results from a prospective cohort study. Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism 2024. link 51 El-Jade M. The role of color doppler ultrasonography in the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis in ophthalmic patients. Journal of ultrasound 2024. link 52 Kushwaha P, Singh M, Bellichuki P, Singh R. Giant cell arteritis causing mesenteric ischemia without cranial manifestations: Report of an unusual case. Indian journal of pathology & microbiology 2024. link 53 Chehem Daoud Chehem F, de Mornac D, Feuillet F, Liozon E, Samson M, Bonnotte B et al.. Giant cell arteritis associated with scalp, tongue or lip necrosis: A French multicenter case control study. Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism 2024. link 54 Alibaz-Öner F, Kelesoglu B, Balci MA, Yardimci GK, Armağan B, Kiliç L et al.. Low relapse rate in patients with giant cell arteritis in a multi-centre retrospective Turkish Registry. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2024. link 55 Wladis EJ, Ata A, Li C, Peng X, Waxman MJ, Pauze DR et al.. The impact of month and season on the incidence of giant cell arteritis: an Intelligent Research in Sight (IRIS) Registry analysis. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie 2024. link 56 Greigert H, Ramon A, Genet C, Cladière C, Gerard C, Cuidad M et al.. Neointimal myofibroblasts contribute to maintaining Th1/Tc1 and Th17/Tc17 inflammation in giant cell arteritis. Journal of autoimmunity 2024. link 57 Inayat H, Youn S, Bursztyn LLCD. Utility of online GCA risk models in predicting the result of temporal artery biopsy within a clinical setting: study of diagnostic and screening tests. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie 2024. link 58 Gabrielli R, Siani A, Smedile G, Rizzo AR, De Vivo G, Accrocca F et al.. Isolated popliteal artery lesion due to giant cell vasculitis post COVID-19 mRNA vaccine and COVID-19 asymptomatic infection. Vascular 2024. link 59 Sookaromdee P, Wiwanitkit V. Giant cell vasculitis post-COVID-19 mRNA vaccine and COVID-19 asymptomatic infection: Correspondence. Vascular 2024. link 60 González García A, Del Arco C, Lucas Fernández D, Frías-Vargas M, Guillán M, Méndez-Bailón M et al.. Executive summary on the optimization of the multidisciplinary and integrated approach to polymyalgia rheumatica and giant cell arteritis in Madrid region. Revista clinica espanola 2024. link 61 Gil W, Kodjikian L, Andre M, Kaur I, Durel CA, Hot A et al.. Uveitis in Giant Cell Arteritis: A Retrospective Study of Seven Observational Cases and Literature Review. Ocular immunology and inflammation 2024. link 62 Boiardi L, Farnetti E, Macchioni P, Nicoli D, Croci S, Muratore F et al.. C-reactive protein gene polymorphisms influence susceptibility and outcomes of biopsy-proven giant cell arteritis in Italian patients. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2024. link 63 Chazal T, Clavel G, Leturcq T, Philibert M, Lecler A, Vignal-Clermont C. Characteristics and Prognosis of Binocular Diplopia in Patients With Giant Cell Arteritis. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology : the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society 2024. link 64 Schäfer VS, Brossart P, Warrington KJ, Kurts C, Sendtner GW, Aden CA. The role of autoimmunity and autoinflammation in giant cell arteritis: A systematic literature review. Autoimmunity reviews 2023. link 65 Schmidt WA. Vascular ultrasound in rheumatology practice. Best practice & research. Clinical rheumatology 2023. link 66 Narváez J, Estrada P, Vidal-Montal P, Nolla JM. Performance of the new 2022 ACR/EULAR classification criteria for giant cell arteritis in clinical practice in relation to its clinical phenotypes. Autoimmunity reviews 2023. link 67 Molina-Collada J, Castrejón I, Monjo I, Fernández-Fernández E, Torres Ortiz G, Álvaro-Gracia JM et al.. Performance of the 2022 ACR/EULAR giant cell arteritis classification criteria for diagnosis in patients with suspected giant cell arteritis in routine clinical care. RMD open 2023. link 68 Elfishawi M, Rakholiya J, Gunderson TM, Achenbach SJ, Crowson CS, Matteson EL et al.. Lower Frequency of Comorbidities Prior to Onset of Giant Cell Arteritis: A Population-Based Study. The Journal of rheumatology 2023. link 69 Prieto-Peña D, Genre F, Pulito-Cueto V, Ocejo-Vinyals JG, Atienza-Mateo B, Muñoz Jiménez A et al.. Cranial and extracranial large-vessel giant cell arteritis share a genetic pattern of interferon-gamma pathway. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2023. link 70 Vaiopoulos A, Kanakis M, Vaiopoulos G, Samanidis G, Kaklamanis P. Giant Cell Arteritis: Focusing on Current Aspects From the Clinic to Diagnosis and Treatment. Angiology 2023. link 71 Pinnell J, Tiivas C, Mehta P, Dubey S. Corticosteroids reduce vascular ultrasound sensitivity in fast- track pathways (FTP): results from Coventry Multi-Disciplinary FTP for cranial Giant Cell Arteritis. Scandinavian journal of rheumatology 2023. link 72 Guggenberger KV, Vogt ML, Song JW, Weng AM, Fröhlich M, Schmalzing M et al.. Intraorbital findings in giant cell arteritis on black blood MRI. European radiology 2023. link 73 Jud P, Verheyen N, Stradner MH, Dejaco C, Szolar D, Thonhofer R et al.. Association of immunological parameters with aortic dilatation in giant cell arteritis: a cross-sectional study. Rheumatology international 2023. link 74 Naumovska M, Sheikh R, Albinsson J, Hammar B, Dahlstrand U, Malmjsö M et al.. Ultrasound centre frequency shifts as a novel approach for diagnosing giant cell arteritis. Scandinavian journal of rheumatology 2023. link 75 Moreel L, Betrains A, Molenberghs G, Blockmans D, Vanderschueren S. Duration of Treatment With Glucocorticoids in Giant Cell Arteritis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Journal of clinical rheumatology : practical reports on rheumatic & musculoskeletal diseases 2023. link 76 Hasegawa E, Kurosawa Y, Wakamatsu A, Sato H, Kobayashi D, Nakatsue T et al.. Giant Cell Arteritis That Presented with Buccal Skin Ulceration along the Facial Artery. Internal medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2023. link 77 Conticini E, Hellmich B, Frediani B, Csernok E, Löffler C. Utility of serum complement factors C3 and C4 as biomarkers during therapeutic management of giant cell arteritis. Scandinavian journal of rheumatology 2023. link 78 Higashida-Konishi M, Akiyama M, Shimada T, Hama S, Oshige T, Izumi K et al.. Giant cell arteritis successfully treated with subcutaneous tocilizumab monotherapy. Rheumatology international 2023. link 79 Zeisbrich M, Thiel J, Venhoff N. The IL-17 pathway as a target in giant cell arteritis. Frontiers in immunology 2023. link 80 Sodhi G, Mundae R, Lee MS, Spencer DB, Tang PH. Sudden-onset unilateral painless vision loss. Survey of ophthalmology 2023. link 81 Sachdev A, Dubey S, George M, Crossman R, Mehta P. Role of Temporal artery biopsy in a sequential Giant Cell Arteritis fast-track pathway: a 5-year prospective study. Eye (London, England) 2023. link 82 Anumolu N, Henry K, Sattui SE, Putman M. Is there a role for Pneumocystis jiroveci pneumonia prophylaxis in giant cell arteritis or polymyalgia rheumatica?. Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism 2023. link 83 Calderón-Goercke M, Loricera J, Moriano C, Castañeda S, Narváez J, Aldasoro V et al.. Optimisation of tocilizumab therapy in giant cell arteritis. A multicentre real-life study of 471 patients. Clinical and experimental rheumatology 2023. link 84 Hansen MS, Terslev L, Jensen MR, Brittain JM, Døhn UM, Faber C et al.. Comparison of temporal artery ultrasound versus biopsy in the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. Eye (London, England) 2023. link 85 Dejaco C, Ponte C, Monti S, Rozza D, Scirè CA, Terslev L et al.. The provisional OMERACT ultrasonography score for giant cell arteritis. Annals of the rheumatic diseases 2023. link 86 Conticini E, Falsetti P, Fabiani C, Baldi C, Grazzini S, Tosi GM et al.. Color Doppler Eye Ultrasonography in giant cell arteritis: differential diagnosis between arteritic and non-arteritic sudden blindness. Journal of ultrasound 2023. link 87 Atlas IS, Colley SM, Chia MA. Utility of biomarkers and temporal artery biopsy length for investigating giant cell arteritis in Western Australia. International journal of rheumatic diseases 2023. link 88 Elahi E, Afshin EE, Zoltan S, Hu KY. Biopsy of the Parietal Branch of the Superficial Temporal Artery for the Diagnosis of Giant Cell Arteritis. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology : the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society 2023. link 89 Thatcher MD, Chan AT, Munoz DG, Micieli JA. Comparison of pre-formalin fixation and postfixation temporal artery biopsy lengths. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie 2023. link 90 Stretton B, Tan Y, Hassall M, Simon S. The Role of Tocilizumab in Glucocorticoid Resistant Giant Cell Arteritis: A Case Series and Literature Review. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology : the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society 2023. link 91 Wu M, Liao Z, Zeng K, Jiang Q. Exploring the causal role of gut microbiota in giant cell arteritis: a Mendelian randomization analysis with mediator insights. Frontiers in immunology 2023. link 92 Henry IM, Fernández Fernández E, Peiteado D, Balsa A, de Miguel E. Diagnostic validity of ultrasound including extra-cranial arteries in giant cell arteritis. Clinical rheumatology 2023. link 93 Siljeström Berenguer C, Bonilla G, Suárez-Ferrer C. Intestinal disease secondary to tocilizumab. Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas 2022. link 94 Piccus R, Hansen MS, Hamann S, Mollan SP. An update on the clinical approach to giant cell arteritis. Clinical medicine (London, England) 2022. link 95 Ponte C, Grayson PC, Robson JC, Suppiah R, Gribbons KB, Judge A et al.. 2022 American College of Rheumatology/EULAR classification criteria for giant cell arteritis. Annals of the rheumatic diseases 2022. link 96 Mansoor T, Lynch NP, Rifai H, Hamlin S, Moneley D. Utilization of the Revised American College of Rheumatology (rACR) Scoring to Avoid Unnecessary Temporal Artery Biopsies-A Case Series. Medical sciences (Basel, Switzerland) 2022. link 97 Ponte C, Grayson PC, Robson JC, Suppiah R, Gribbons KB, Judge A et al.. 2022 American College of Rheumatology/EULAR Classification Criteria for Giant Cell Arteritis. Arthritis & rheumatology (Hoboken, N.J.) 2022. link 98 Fernández-Fernández E, Monjo I, Peiteado D, Balsa A, De Miguel E. Validity of the EULAR recommendations on the use of ultrasound in the diagnosis of giant cell arteritis. RMD open 2022. link 99 Scolnik M, Brance ML, Fernández-Ávila DG, Inoue Sato E, de Souza AWS, Magri SJ et al.. Pan American League of Associations for Rheumatology guidelines for the treatment of giant cell arteritis. The Lancet. Rheumatology 2022. link00260-0) 100 Aonuma K, Yamamoto Y, Tamada T, Ito Y, Noda K, Suzuki Y et al.. Pneumatosis Intestinalis Developed in a Patient with Giant Cell Arteritis While in a Clinically Sustained Remission Phase. Internal medicine (Tokyo, Japan) 2022. link

Original source

[1]
Current clinical practice trends in giant cell arteritis diagnosis and management: a national survey of Australian rheumatologists and rheumatology trainees. — Ninan J, Leung J, Liew D, Lester S, Stanhope J, McNeil J et al. Internal medicine journal (2026)
[2]
Prevalence of diplopia among giant cell arteritis patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. — Dhivagaran T, Butt FR, Nasri D, Maini P, Lin E, Tao BK et al. Eye (London, England) (2026)
[3]
Giant Cell Arteritis With Medin-Derived Amyloid (AMed) Deposition in a Patient With COVID-19: An Autopsy Case. — Ichimata S, Yoshinaga T, Sato M, Katoh N, Kametani F, Morinaga Y et al. Pathology international (2026)
[4]
Complete PET/CT extinction and subsequent risk of aortic dilation in patients with giant cell arteritis-related large vessel vasculitis treated with tocilizumab. — Dumont A, Espitia O, Samson M, Comarmond-Ortoli C, Sailler L, Berthoux E et al. RMD open (2026)
[5]
Every minute blinds: Temporal artery ultrasound in the real-time diagnosis of stroke of the eye. — Avasarala J, Gangadhara S, Bobadilla J, Chadha R The American journal of emergency medicine (2026)
[6]
Racial differences in stroke, blindness, and mortality among Black versus non-Black patients with giant cell arteritis: an international cohort study. — Muayad J, Arogundade EO, Jaiswal S, Ahmed IIK, Lee AG Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie (2026)
[7]
Crosstalk between macrophages and fibroblasts contributes to inflammation and damage in giant cell arteritis. — Xu S, Jiemy WF, Zhang A, Walinga F, Nijenhuis M, Hensema E et al. Rheumatology (Oxford, England) (2026)
[8]
Is there a seasonal pattern in giant cell arteritis? Revisiting the evidence in a large monocentric cohort over 30 years. — Bond M, Bosch P, Kuenzer T, Juche A, Bastian H, Schmidt WA Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism (2026)
[9]
Zig-Zag Incision for Temporal Artery Biopsy: Technique and Rationale. — Slagle G, Cartwright MJ Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery (2026)
[10]
Advances in diagnosing and treating giant cell arteritis: New hope for arteritic anterior ischemic optic neuropathy. — von der Emde L, Petzinna SM, Herwig-Carl MC, Adamson MS, Bauer CJ, Esser J et al. Survey of ophthalmology (2026)
[11]
Switching from Originator Tocilizumab to Biosimilar in Giant Cell Arteritis: Evaluation of Effectiveness and Safety in a Multicenter Cohort of 38 Patients. — Loricera J, Molina-Collada J, Nieto JC, Sánchez-Lucas M, Silva-Díaz MT, Moya P et al. Drugs & aging (2026)
[12]
Patient characteristics, disease manifestations and diagnostic findings of consecutive patients suspected of Giant Cell Arteritis (GCA) - retrospective experience from a fast-track clinic in Israel. — Haddad A, Gazitt T, Batheesh A, Feld J, Finkelstein NY, Elias M et al. Clinical rheumatology (2026)
[13]
The real-world experience of combined cranial and large vessel — Port K, Shon IH, Ayesa S, Langford R, Bennett O, Csillag A et al. Clinical rheumatology (2026)
[14]
Characteristics of patients with major relapse in giant cell arteritis: a multicenter case-control study. — Rubinsztajn A, Parreau S, Sailler L, de Boysson H, Espitia O, Sève P et al. Clinical rheumatology (2026)
[15]
Identification of therapeutic targets for giant cell arteritis through integrated analysis of multi-omics datasets. — Huang BQ, Tian YX, Li LJ Hepatobiliary & pancreatic diseases international : HBPD INT (2026)
[16]
Study on the chemokine CXCL10 in serum for its value in GCA-PMR spectrum disease stratification. — Ke Z, Feng D, Xu S, Liu M, Xu L Clinical rheumatology (2026)
[17]
Cellular senescence in giant cell arteritis and polymyalgia rheumatica: From mechanisms to therapeutic opportunities. — Luo Y, Yang F, He Y, Lin J, Chen W European journal of clinical investigation (2026)
[18]
The influence of baseline aortitis on aortic dilation risk in GCA: a multicentre imaging study. — Marvisi C, Guggenberger KV, Besutti G, Werner RA, Mancuso P, Serfling SE et al. Rheumatology (Oxford, England) (2026)
[19]
A Diagnostic Headache. — Glynn T, Leech MT, Goergen SK, Lin E, Toodayan N, Junckerstorff R The Medical journal of Australia (2026)
[20]
Recurrent vertebrobasilar stroke in giant cell arteritis associated with progressive prostate carcinoma: a case report and literature review. — Bertens JPF, Oskam LC, van Bon L, van der Heijden CDCC Clinical rheumatology (2026)
[21]
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