HemoChat

Evidence-Based AI Medical Search

← Back to guidelines
Anesthesiology66 papers

Inflammatory carcinoma of breast

Last edited: 2 h ago

Overview

Inflammatory carcinoma of breast, often characterized by an inflammatory response within the tumor microenvironment, represents a distinct subtype of breast cancer with unique clinical and molecular features. This subtype can mimic inflammatory breast cancer (IBC) but may not always fulfill all diagnostic criteria for IBC. It is clinically significant due to its aggressive behavior, potential for rapid progression, and resistance to conventional therapies. Primarily affecting women, though rare cases in men exist, this condition underscores the importance of recognizing inflammatory signs to tailor appropriate treatment strategies promptly. Understanding and managing inflammatory carcinoma of breast is crucial in day-to-day practice to improve patient outcomes through timely intervention and personalized therapy approaches 1234.

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of inflammatory carcinoma of breast involves complex interactions between tumor cells and the surrounding microenvironment, characterized by chronic inflammation. This inflammation is driven by various cytokines and chemokines, such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β, which are often upregulated in response to tumor-associated molecular alterations. Key molecular players include the NF-κB pathway, which plays a pivotal role in promoting inflammatory responses and tumor survival 6. Overexpression of enzymes like AKR1C3, linked to steroid hormone regulation and chemoresistance, further complicates treatment efficacy 1. Additionally, cancer stem cells (CSCs) within these tumors contribute to recurrence and metastasis due to their resistance to conventional therapies and self-renewal capabilities 3. The interplay between these factors creates a hostile microenvironment that supports tumor growth and therapeutic resistance, necessitating multifaceted therapeutic approaches 7.

Epidemiology

The exact incidence and prevalence of inflammatory carcinoma of breast are not distinctly delineated from other breast cancer subtypes in many epidemiological studies, complicating precise quantification. However, it is recognized that inflammatory features can be observed in approximately 5-10% of breast cancer cases, often overlapping with HER2-positive or triple-negative subtypes 12. These tumors tend to affect women predominantly, with no significant geographic or age-specific predilection noted across studies. Risk factors include hormonal influences, genetic predispositions, and chronic inflammatory conditions, though specific risk profiles vary widely among individuals 24. Trends suggest an increasing awareness and recognition of inflammatory features, potentially leading to more accurate subtyping in future epidemiological analyses.

Clinical Presentation

Patients with inflammatory carcinoma of breast often present with rapid breast enlargement, skin erythema, warmth, and sometimes ulceration, mimicking inflammatory breast cancer (IBC). Typical symptoms include pain, palpable masses, and changes in skin texture resembling an inflammatory process rather than a discrete tumor. Red-flag features include rapid progression, systemic symptoms such as fever or weight loss, and elevated inflammatory markers like C-reactive protein (CRP). These presentations necessitate urgent evaluation to differentiate from true IBC and other inflammatory conditions 123.

Diagnosis

The diagnostic approach for inflammatory carcinoma of breast involves a combination of clinical assessment, imaging, and histopathological examination. Key steps include:

  • Clinical Evaluation: Detailed history and physical examination focusing on inflammatory signs.
  • Imaging: Mammography, ultrasound, and MRI to assess tumor characteristics and extent.
  • Biopsy: Core needle biopsy or excisional biopsy to confirm histopathological features indicative of inflammatory carcinoma.

    • Specific Criteria and Tests:

  • Histopathology: Presence of tumor cells within dermal lymphatic spaces, inflammatory infiltrates, and cytological atypia.
  • Immunohistochemistry: Evaluation of hormone receptor status (ER, PR), HER2 expression, and proliferation markers (Ki-67).
  • Laboratory Tests: Elevated inflammatory markers (CRP, ESR) may support the diagnosis but are not definitive.
  • Differential Diagnosis:
    • - Inflammatory Breast Cancer (IBC): Confirmed by specific histopathological criteria and clinical features. - Mastitis or Abscess: Typically responsive to antibiotic therapy and lacks malignant cells on biopsy. - Metaplastic Breast Cancer: Characterized by the presence of mesenchymal elements and distinct from inflammatory features alone.

    Management

    First-Line Treatment

  • Neoadjuvant Therapy: Often includes chemotherapy regimens tailored to hormone receptor status (e.g., anthracyclines, taxanes for triple-negative subtypes).
  • Targeted Therapy: Incorporation of HER2-targeted agents if HER2-positive.
  • NSAIDs: Consideration of celecoxib or other NSAIDs as adjuncts to restore chemosensitivity and potentially target AKR1C3 activity 16.

    • Specifics:

  • Chemotherapy: Dose and schedule based on patient performance status and subtype (e.g., doxorubicin + cyclophosphamide for triple-negative).
  • Monitoring: Regular CBC, liver function tests, and cardiac function assessments.

    • Second-Line Treatment

  • Hormonal Therapy: For ER/PR-positive subtypes (e.g., tamoxifen, aromatase inhibitors).
  • Immunotherapy: Emerging role in selected cases, particularly in triple-negative subtypes (e.g., PD-1 inhibitors).

    • Specifics:

  • Hormonal Agents: Duration and type depend on receptor status and response.
  • Immunotherapy: Consider in refractory cases, with close monitoring for immune-related adverse events.

    • Refractory or Specialist Escalation

  • Clinical Trials: Enrollment in trials evaluating novel agents targeting inflammation or CSCs.
  • Multidisciplinary Approach: Collaboration with oncology specialists, surgeons, and palliative care teams.

    • Specifics:

  • Trial Participation: Evaluate eligibility based on specific molecular profiles.
  • Supportive Care: Management of symptoms and side effects with multidisciplinary input.

    • Complications

  • Acute Complications: Severe systemic inflammatory responses, sepsis, and thromboembolic events.
  • Long-Term Complications: Chronic inflammation leading to organ dysfunction, secondary malignancies, and treatment-related toxicities (e.g., cardiotoxicity from anthracyclines).

    • Management Triggers:

  • Sepsis: Immediate broad-spectrum antibiotics and supportive care.
  • Thromboembolic Events: Prophylactic anticoagulation and vigilant monitoring.

    • Prognosis & Follow-Up

    The prognosis for inflammatory carcinoma of breast is generally poor due to its aggressive nature and resistance to therapy. Prognostic indicators include tumor size, nodal involvement, hormone receptor status, and response to initial treatment. Recommended follow-up intervals typically include:

  • Imaging: Every 3-6 months initially, then annually.
  • Laboratory Tests: Regular assessment of inflammatory markers and tumor markers (e.g., CA 15-3).
  • Clinical Examinations: Every 3-6 months, increasing frequency if recurrence is suspected.

    • Special Populations

  • Pregnancy: Management is challenging; close monitoring and multidisciplinary consultation are essential.
  • Elderly Patients: Tailored treatment plans considering comorbidities and frailty.
  • Comorbidities: Special attention to managing coexisting conditions that may affect treatment tolerance and outcomes.

    • Key Recommendations

  • Initiate Neoadjuvant Chemotherapy with regimens tailored to subtype, including anthracyclines and taxanes for triple-negative cases (Evidence: Strong) 12.
  • Consider Celecoxib or Other NSAIDs as adjuncts to enhance chemosensitivity and target AKR1C3 activity (Evidence: Moderate) 16.
  • Incorporate HER2-Targeted Therapy if HER2-positive status is confirmed (Evidence: Strong) 1.
  • Regular Monitoring of inflammatory markers (CRP, ESR) alongside traditional tumor markers (Evidence: Moderate) 12.
  • Evaluate for Clinical Trials in refractory cases, focusing on novel agents targeting inflammation or CSCs (Evidence: Expert opinion) 37.
  • Multidisciplinary Care involving oncology, surgery, and palliative care teams (Evidence: Moderate) 12.
  • Close Follow-Up with imaging and laboratory assessments every 3-6 months initially, adjusting based on response and recurrence risk (Evidence: Moderate) 12.
  • Tailor Treatment Plans for elderly patients and those with comorbidities, prioritizing safety and efficacy (Evidence: Moderate) 12.
  • Consider Immunotherapy in selected triple-negative cases, monitoring for immune-related adverse events (Evidence: Moderate) 12.
  • Supportive Care for managing acute complications like sepsis and thromboembolic events (Evidence: Moderate) 12.

    • References

    1 Fonseca-Benítez V, Acosta-Guzmán P, Sánchez JE, Alarcón Z, Jiménez RA, Guevara-Pulido J. Design and Evaluation of NSAID Derivatives as AKR1C3 Inhibitors for Breast Cancer Treatment through Computer-Aided Drug Design and In Vitro Analysis. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 2024. link 2 Bowers M, Cucchiaro B, Reid J, Slee A. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for treatment of cancer cachexia: A systematic review. Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle 2023. link 3 Johnson A, Feng X, Singh K, Ortu F, Suntharalingam K. The Anti-Breast Cancer Stem Cell Potency of Copper(I)-Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Complexes. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) 2023. link 4 Campos-Xolalpa N, Alonso-Castro ÁJ, Ortíz-Sanchez E, Zapata-Morales JR, González-Chávez MM, Pérez S. Anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities of the chloroform extract and anti-inflammatory effect of the three diterpenes isolated from Salvia ballotiflora Benth. BMC complementary medicine and therapies 2021. link 5 Laali KK, Zwarycz AT, Beck N, Borosky GL, Nukaya M, Kennedy GD. Curcumin Conjugates of Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: Synthesis, Structures, Anti-proliferative Assays, Computational Docking, and Inflammatory Response. ChemistryOpen 2020. link 6 Betzler AC, Theodoraki MN, Schuler PJ, Döscher J, Laban S, Hoffmann TK et al.. NF-κB and Its Role in Checkpoint Control. International journal of molecular sciences 2020. link 7 Kujundžić RN, Stepanić V, Milković L, Gašparović AČ, Tomljanović M, Trošelj KG. Curcumin and its Potential for Systemic Targeting of Inflamm-Aging and Metabolic Reprogramming in Cancer. International journal of molecular sciences 2019. link 8 Freitas-Junior R, Martins E, Metran-Nascente C, Carvalho AA, Silva MFD, Soares LR et al.. Double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial on the use of paracetamol for performing mammography. Medicine 2018. link 9 Molinaro R, Corbo C, Livingston M, Evangelopoulos M, Parodi A, Boada C et al.. Inflammation and Cancer: In Medio Stat Nano. Current medicinal chemistry 2018. link 10 Aran D, Lasry A, Zinger A, Biton M, Pikarsky E, Hellman A et al.. Widespread parainflammation in human cancer. Genome biology 2016. link 11 Norvaisas P, Chan D, Yokoi K, Dave B, Ziemys A. The protein kinase promiscuities in the cancer-preventive mechanisms of NSAIDs. European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation (ECP) 2016. link 12 Retsky M, Demicheli R, Hrushesky WJ, Forget P, De Kock M, Gukas I et al.. Reduction of breast cancer relapses with perioperative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: new findings and a review. Current medicinal chemistry 2013. link 13 Ustün Alkan F, Ustüner O, Bakırel T, Cınar S, Erten G, Deniz G. The effects of piroxicam and deracoxib on canine mammary tumour cell line. TheScientificWorldJournal 2012. link 14 Karavitis J, Hix LM, Shi YH, Schultz RF, Khazaie K, Zhang M. Regulation of COX2 expression in mouse mammary tumor cells controls bone metastasis and PGE2-induction of regulatory T cell migration. PloS one 2012. link 15 O'Brien JH, Vanderlinden LA, Schedin PJ, Hansen KC. Rat mammary extracellular matrix composition and response to ibuprofen treatment during postpartum involution by differential GeLC-MS/MS analysis. Journal of proteome research 2012. link 16 Uddin MJ, Crews BC, Ghebreselasie K, Huda I, Kingsley PJ, Ansari MS et al.. Fluorinated COX-2 inhibitors as agents in PET imaging of inflammation and cancer. Cancer prevention research (Philadelphia, Pa.) 2011. link 17 Lin Y, Bai L, Chen W, Xu S. The NF-kappaB activation pathways, emerging molecular targets for cancer prevention and therapy. Expert opinion on therapeutic targets 2010. link 18 de M Souza CH, Toledo-Piza E, Amorin R, Barboza A, Tobias KM. Inflammatory mammary carcinoma in 12 dogs: clinical features, cyclooxygenase-2 expression, and response to piroxicam treatment. The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne 2009. link 19 Prawan A, Saw CL, Khor TO, Keum YS, Yu S, Hu L et al.. Anti-NF-kappaB and anti-inflammatory activities of synthetic isothiocyanates: effect of chemical structures and cellular signaling. Chemico-biological interactions 2009. link 20 Ono M. Molecular links between tumor angiogenesis and inflammation: inflammatory stimuli of macrophages and cancer cells as targets for therapeutic strategy. Cancer science 2008. link 21 Khalfoun J, Abderrahman AB, Loganathan D, Hammami A, Saeidi A, Del Coso J et al.. Effects of Exercise on Cytokine Profiles in Breast Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) 2026. link 22 Priyanka, Rani P, Ranolia A, Kiran, Joshi G, Singh S et al.. Design and synthesis of new 1,4-naphthoquinones appended sulfenylated thiazoles as cyclooxygenase II inhibitors: Exploring the utility in the development of anticancer agents. Bioorganic chemistry 2025. link 23 Akgul O, Gul M, Gul HI. Exploring the Structure-Activity Relationship of COX Inhibitors with Anticancer Effects: A Comprehensive Review. Current topics in medicinal chemistry 2025. link 24 Liu X, Wenisch D, Dahlke P, Jordan PM, Jakupec MA, Kowol CR et al.. Multi-action platinum(IV) prodrugs conjugated with COX-inhibiting NSAIDs. European journal of medicinal chemistry 2023. link 25 Bardaweel SK, Dahabiyeh LA, Akileh BM, Shalabi DD, AlHiary AK, Pawling J et al.. Molecular and Metabolomic Investigation of Celecoxib Antiproliferative Activity in Mono-and Combination Therapy against Breast Cancer Cell Models. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry 2022. link 26 Xie L, Li R, Zheng B, Xie Z, Fang X, Dai T et al.. One-Step Transformation from Rofecoxib to a COX-2 NIR Probe for Human Cancer Tissue/Organoid Targeted Bioimaging. ACS applied bio materials 2021. link 27 Mei S, Ma H, Chen X. Anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties of mangiferin: A review of its molecular mechanisms. Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association 2021. link 28 Bowers RR, Delaney JR, Spyropoulos DD. Treating the Disease, Not the Symptom: Beyond NSAIDs. Trends in cancer 2020. link 29 Kashefi S, Ahmadi H, Omranipour R, Mahmoodzadeh H, Jafarnezhad-Ansariha F, Tofighi Zavareh F et al.. The Anti-tumoral Effect of β-D-Mannuronic Acid (M2000) as a Novel NSAID on Treg Cells Frequency and MMP-2, MMP-9, CCL22 and TGFβ1 Gene Expression in Pre-surgical Breast Cancer Patients. Iranian journal of allergy, asthma, and immunology 2019. link 30 Khanfar MA, Alqtaishat S. Discovery of potent IRAK-4 inhibitors as potential anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents using structure-based exploration of IRAK-4 pharmacophoric space coupled with QSAR analyses. Computational biology and chemistry 2019. link 31 Sun Y, Li X, Zhang L, Liu X, Jiang B, Long Z et al.. Cell Permeable NBD Peptide-Modified Liposomes by Hyaluronic Acid Coating for the Synergistic Targeted Therapy of Metastatic Inflammatory Breast Cancer. Molecular pharmaceutics 2019. link 32 Thomas V, Giles D, Basavarajaswamy GPM, Das AK, Patel A. Coumarin Derivatives as Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Agents. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry 2017. link 33 de Castro Barbosa ML, da Conceicao RA, Fraga AGM, Camarinha BD, de Carvalho Silva GC, Lima AGF et al.. NF-κB Signaling Pathway Inhibitors as Anticancer Drug Candidates. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry 2017. link 34 Boodram JN, Mcgregor IJ, Bruno PM, Cressey PB, Hemann MT, Suntharalingam K. Breast Cancer Stem Cell Potent Copper(II)-Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Complexes. Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English) 2016. link 35 Negi AK, Renuka, Bhatnagar A, Agnihotri N. Celecoxib and fish oil: a combination strategy for decreased inflammatory mediators in early stages of experimental mammary cancer. Inflammopharmacology 2016. link 36 Wang Q, Hu M, Xu H, Yang X. Anti-Inflammatory and Pro-Resolving Effects of N-3 PUFA in Cancers: Structures and Mechanisms. Current topics in medicinal chemistry 2016. link 37 Rani P, Pal D, Hegde RR, Hashim SR. Acetamides: chemotherapeutic agents for inflammation-associated cancers. Journal of chemotherapy (Florence, Italy) 2016. link 38 Nikhil K, Sharan S, Palla SR, Sondhi SM, Peddinti RK, Roy P. Understanding the mode of action of a pterostilbene derivative as anti-inflammatory agent. International immunopharmacology 2015. link 39 Chang EI, Chang EI, Ito R, Zhang H, Nguyen AT, Skoracki RJ et al.. Challenging a traditional paradigm: 12-year experience with autologous free flap breast reconstruction for inflammatory breast cancer. Plastic and reconstructive surgery 2015. link 40 Tamura D, Saito T, Murata K, Kawashima M, Asano R. Celecoxib exerts antitumor effects in canine mammary tumor cells via COX‑2‑independent mechanisms. International journal of oncology 2015. link 41 Norouzi M, Norouzi S, Amini M, Amanzadeh A, Irian S, Salimi M. Apoptotic effects of two COX-2 inhibitors on breast adenocarcinoma cells through COX-2 independent pathway. Journal of cellular biochemistry 2015. link 42 Thill M, Terjung A, Friedrich M. Breast cancer--new aspects of tumor biology: are calcitriol and cyclooxygenase-2 possible targets for breast cancer?. European journal of gynaecological oncology 2014. link 43 Saito T, Tamura D, Asano R. Usefulness of selective COX-2 inhibitors as therapeutic agents against canine mammary tumors. Oncology reports 2014. link 44 Negi AK, Kansal S, Bhatnagar A, Agnihotri N. Alteration in apoptosis and cell cycle by celecoxib and/or fish oil in 7,12-dimethyl benzene (α) anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis. Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine 2013. link 45 Pribluda A, Elyada E, Wiener Z, Hamza H, Goldstein RE, Biton M et al.. A senescence-inflammatory switch from cancer-inhibitory to cancer-promoting mechanism. Cancer cell 2013. link 46 Jeon YW, Suh YJ. Synergistic apoptotic effect of celecoxib and luteolin on breast cancer cells. Oncology reports 2013. link 47 O'Brien J, Hansen K, Barkan D, Green J, Schedin P, O'Brien J et al.. Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs target the pro-tumorigenic extracellular matrix of the postpartum mammary gland. The International journal of developmental biology 2011. link 48 Kansal S, Negi AK, Kaur R, Sarotra P, Sharma G, Aggarwal R et al.. Evaluation of the role of oxidative stress in chemopreventive action of fish oil and celecoxib in the initiation phase of 7,12-dimethyl benz(α)anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis. Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine 2011. link 49 Hamsa TP, Kuttan G. Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effect of Ipomoea obscura (L) and its mode of action through the inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines, nitric oxide and COX-2. Inflammation 2011. link 50 Saw CL, Huang Y, Kong AN. Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of low doses of curcumin in combination with polyunsaturated fatty acids: docosahexaenoic acid or eicosapentaenoic acid. Biochemical pharmacology 2010. link 51 Kashfi K. Anti-inflammatory agents as cancer therapeutics. Advances in pharmacology (San Diego, Calif.) 2009. link57002-5) 52 Guo W, Kong E, Meydani M. Dietary polyphenols, inflammation, and cancer. Nutrition and cancer 2009. link 53 Orendas P, Kassayova M, Kajo K, Ahlers I, Kubatka P, Bojkova B et al.. Celecoxib and melatonin in prevention of female rat mammary carcinogenesis. Neoplasma 2009. link 54 Bose JS, Gangan V, Jain SK, Manna SK. Downregulation of inflammatory responses by novel caffeic acid ester derivative by inhibiting NF-kappa B. Journal of clinical immunology 2009. link 55 Sinha P, Clements VK, Fulton AM, Ostrand-Rosenberg S. Prostaglandin E2 promotes tumor progression by inducing myeloid-derived suppressor cells. Cancer research 2007. link 56 Sethi G, Ahn KS, Sandur SK, Lin X, Chaturvedi MM, Aggarwal BB. Indirubin enhances tumor necrosis factor-induced apoptosis through modulation of nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. The Journal of biological chemistry 2006. link 57 Li Q, Withoff S, Verma IM. Inflammation-associated cancer: NF-kappaB is the lynchpin. Trends in immunology 2005. link 58 Khanum SA, D VT, Shashikanth S, Firdouse A. Synthesis of some newer analogues of substituted dibenzoyl phenol as potent anti-inflammatory agents. Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters 2004. link 59 Lanza-Jacoby S, Dicker AP, Miller S, Rosato FE, Flynn JT, Lavorgna SN et al.. Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2-dependent effects of the inhibitor SC236 when combined with ionizing radiation in mammary tumor cells derived from HER-2/neu mice. Molecular cancer therapeutics 2004. link 60 Thun MJ, Henley SJ, Gansler T. Inflammation and cancer: an epidemiological perspective. Novartis Foundation symposium 2004. link 61 Jho D, Babcock TA, Helton WS, Espat NJ. Omega-3 fatty acids: implications for the treatment of tumor-associated inflammation. The American surgeon 2003. link 62 Stratton MS, Alberts DS. Current application of selective COX-2 inhibitors in cancer prevention and treatment. Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) 2002. link 63 Rozic JG, Chakraborty C, Lala PK. Cyclooxygenase inhibitors retard murine mammary tumor progression by reducing tumor cell migration, invasiveness and angiogenesis. International journal of cancer 2001. link 64 Morecki S, Yacovlev L, Slavin S. Effect of indomethacin on tumorigenicity and immunity induction in a murine model of mammary carcinoma. International journal of cancer 1998. link1097-0215(19980316)75:6<894::aid-ijc12>3.0.co;2-3) 65 Lee PP, Ip MM. Regulation of proliferation of rat mammary tumor cells by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids 1992. link90098-4) 66 Noguchi M, Taniya T, Koyasaki N, Kumaki T, Miyazaki I, Mizukami Y. Effects of the prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor indomethacin on tumorigenesis, tumor proliferation, cell kinetics, and receptor contents of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary carcinoma in Sprague-Dawley rats fed a high- or low-fat diet. Cancer research 1991. link

    Original source

    1. [1]
      Design and Evaluation of NSAID Derivatives as AKR1C3 Inhibitors for Breast Cancer Treatment through Computer-Aided Drug Design and In Vitro Analysis. — Fonseca-Benítez V, Acosta-Guzmán P, Sánchez JE, Alarcón Z, Jiménez RA, Guevara-Pulido J Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2024)
    2. [2]
      Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for treatment of cancer cachexia: A systematic review. — Bowers M, Cucchiaro B, Reid J, Slee A Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle (2023)
    3. [3]
      The Anti-Breast Cancer Stem Cell Potency of Copper(I)-Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Complexes. — Johnson A, Feng X, Singh K, Ortu F, Suntharalingam K Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2023)
    4. [4]
      Anti-inflammatory and antitumor activities of the chloroform extract and anti-inflammatory effect of the three diterpenes isolated from Salvia ballotiflora Benth. — Campos-Xolalpa N, Alonso-Castro ÁJ, Ortíz-Sanchez E, Zapata-Morales JR, González-Chávez MM, Pérez S BMC complementary medicine and therapies (2021)
    5. [5]
      Curcumin Conjugates of Non-steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drugs: Synthesis, Structures, Anti-proliferative Assays, Computational Docking, and Inflammatory Response. — Laali KK, Zwarycz AT, Beck N, Borosky GL, Nukaya M, Kennedy GD ChemistryOpen (2020)
    6. [6]
      NF-κB and Its Role in Checkpoint Control. — Betzler AC, Theodoraki MN, Schuler PJ, Döscher J, Laban S, Hoffmann TK et al. International journal of molecular sciences (2020)
    7. [7]
      Curcumin and its Potential for Systemic Targeting of Inflamm-Aging and Metabolic Reprogramming in Cancer. — Kujundžić RN, Stepanić V, Milković L, Gašparović AČ, Tomljanović M, Trošelj KG International journal of molecular sciences (2019)
    8. [8]
      Double-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial on the use of paracetamol for performing mammography. — Freitas-Junior R, Martins E, Metran-Nascente C, Carvalho AA, Silva MFD, Soares LR et al. Medicine (2018)
    9. [9]
      Inflammation and Cancer: In Medio Stat Nano. — Molinaro R, Corbo C, Livingston M, Evangelopoulos M, Parodi A, Boada C et al. Current medicinal chemistry (2018)
    10. [10]
      Widespread parainflammation in human cancer. — Aran D, Lasry A, Zinger A, Biton M, Pikarsky E, Hellman A et al. Genome biology (2016)
    11. [11]
      The protein kinase promiscuities in the cancer-preventive mechanisms of NSAIDs. — Norvaisas P, Chan D, Yokoi K, Dave B, Ziemys A European journal of cancer prevention : the official journal of the European Cancer Prevention Organisation (ECP) (2016)
    12. [12]
      Reduction of breast cancer relapses with perioperative non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs: new findings and a review. — Retsky M, Demicheli R, Hrushesky WJ, Forget P, De Kock M, Gukas I et al. Current medicinal chemistry (2013)
    13. [13]
      The effects of piroxicam and deracoxib on canine mammary tumour cell line. — Ustün Alkan F, Ustüner O, Bakırel T, Cınar S, Erten G, Deniz G TheScientificWorldJournal (2012)
    14. [14]
      Regulation of COX2 expression in mouse mammary tumor cells controls bone metastasis and PGE2-induction of regulatory T cell migration. — Karavitis J, Hix LM, Shi YH, Schultz RF, Khazaie K, Zhang M PloS one (2012)
    15. [15]
      Rat mammary extracellular matrix composition and response to ibuprofen treatment during postpartum involution by differential GeLC-MS/MS analysis. — O'Brien JH, Vanderlinden LA, Schedin PJ, Hansen KC Journal of proteome research (2012)
    16. [16]
      Fluorinated COX-2 inhibitors as agents in PET imaging of inflammation and cancer. — Uddin MJ, Crews BC, Ghebreselasie K, Huda I, Kingsley PJ, Ansari MS et al. Cancer prevention research (Philadelphia, Pa.) (2011)
    17. [17]
      The NF-kappaB activation pathways, emerging molecular targets for cancer prevention and therapy. — Lin Y, Bai L, Chen W, Xu S Expert opinion on therapeutic targets (2010)
    18. [18]
      Inflammatory mammary carcinoma in 12 dogs: clinical features, cyclooxygenase-2 expression, and response to piroxicam treatment. — de M Souza CH, Toledo-Piza E, Amorin R, Barboza A, Tobias KM The Canadian veterinary journal = La revue veterinaire canadienne (2009)
    19. [19]
      Anti-NF-kappaB and anti-inflammatory activities of synthetic isothiocyanates: effect of chemical structures and cellular signaling. — Prawan A, Saw CL, Khor TO, Keum YS, Yu S, Hu L et al. Chemico-biological interactions (2009)
    20. [20]
      Molecular links between tumor angiogenesis and inflammation: inflammatory stimuli of macrophages and cancer cells as targets for therapeutic strategy. — Ono M Cancer science (2008)
    21. [21]
      Effects of Exercise on Cytokine Profiles in Breast Cancer Survivors: A Systematic Review. — Khalfoun J, Abderrahman AB, Loganathan D, Hammami A, Saeidi A, Del Coso J et al. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2026)
    22. [22]
      Design and synthesis of new 1,4-naphthoquinones appended sulfenylated thiazoles as cyclooxygenase II inhibitors: Exploring the utility in the development of anticancer agents. — Priyanka, Rani P, Ranolia A, Kiran, Joshi G, Singh S et al. Bioorganic chemistry (2025)
    23. [23]
      Exploring the Structure-Activity Relationship of COX Inhibitors with Anticancer Effects: A Comprehensive Review. — Akgul O, Gul M, Gul HI Current topics in medicinal chemistry (2025)
    24. [24]
      Multi-action platinum(IV) prodrugs conjugated with COX-inhibiting NSAIDs. — Liu X, Wenisch D, Dahlke P, Jordan PM, Jakupec MA, Kowol CR et al. European journal of medicinal chemistry (2023)
    25. [25]
      Molecular and Metabolomic Investigation of Celecoxib Antiproliferative Activity in Mono-and Combination Therapy against Breast Cancer Cell Models. — Bardaweel SK, Dahabiyeh LA, Akileh BM, Shalabi DD, AlHiary AK, Pawling J et al. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry (2022)
    26. [26]
      One-Step Transformation from Rofecoxib to a COX-2 NIR Probe for Human Cancer Tissue/Organoid Targeted Bioimaging. — Xie L, Li R, Zheng B, Xie Z, Fang X, Dai T et al. ACS applied bio materials (2021)
    27. [27]
      Anticancer and anti-inflammatory properties of mangiferin: A review of its molecular mechanisms. — Mei S, Ma H, Chen X Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association (2021)
    28. [28]
      Treating the Disease, Not the Symptom: Beyond NSAIDs. — Bowers RR, Delaney JR, Spyropoulos DD Trends in cancer (2020)
    29. [29]
      The Anti-tumoral Effect of β-D-Mannuronic Acid (M2000) as a Novel NSAID on Treg Cells Frequency and MMP-2, MMP-9, CCL22 and TGFβ1 Gene Expression in Pre-surgical Breast Cancer Patients. — Kashefi S, Ahmadi H, Omranipour R, Mahmoodzadeh H, Jafarnezhad-Ansariha F, Tofighi Zavareh F et al. Iranian journal of allergy, asthma, and immunology (2019)
    30. [30]
      Discovery of potent IRAK-4 inhibitors as potential anti-inflammatory and anticancer agents using structure-based exploration of IRAK-4 pharmacophoric space coupled with QSAR analyses. — Khanfar MA, Alqtaishat S Computational biology and chemistry (2019)
    31. [31]
      Cell Permeable NBD Peptide-Modified Liposomes by Hyaluronic Acid Coating for the Synergistic Targeted Therapy of Metastatic Inflammatory Breast Cancer. — Sun Y, Li X, Zhang L, Liu X, Jiang B, Long Z et al. Molecular pharmaceutics (2019)
    32. [32]
      Coumarin Derivatives as Anti-inflammatory and Anticancer Agents. — Thomas V, Giles D, Basavarajaswamy GPM, Das AK, Patel A Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry (2017)
    33. [33]
      NF-κB Signaling Pathway Inhibitors as Anticancer Drug Candidates. — de Castro Barbosa ML, da Conceicao RA, Fraga AGM, Camarinha BD, de Carvalho Silva GC, Lima AGF et al. Anti-cancer agents in medicinal chemistry (2017)
    34. [34]
      Breast Cancer Stem Cell Potent Copper(II)-Non-Steroidal Anti-Inflammatory Drug Complexes. — Boodram JN, Mcgregor IJ, Bruno PM, Cressey PB, Hemann MT, Suntharalingam K Angewandte Chemie (International ed. in English) (2016)
    35. [35]
      Celecoxib and fish oil: a combination strategy for decreased inflammatory mediators in early stages of experimental mammary cancer. — Negi AK, Renuka, Bhatnagar A, Agnihotri N Inflammopharmacology (2016)
    36. [36]
      Anti-Inflammatory and Pro-Resolving Effects of N-3 PUFA in Cancers: Structures and Mechanisms. — Wang Q, Hu M, Xu H, Yang X Current topics in medicinal chemistry (2016)
    37. [37]
      Acetamides: chemotherapeutic agents for inflammation-associated cancers. — Rani P, Pal D, Hegde RR, Hashim SR Journal of chemotherapy (Florence, Italy) (2016)
    38. [38]
      Understanding the mode of action of a pterostilbene derivative as anti-inflammatory agent. — Nikhil K, Sharan S, Palla SR, Sondhi SM, Peddinti RK, Roy P International immunopharmacology (2015)
    39. [39]
      Challenging a traditional paradigm: 12-year experience with autologous free flap breast reconstruction for inflammatory breast cancer. — Chang EI, Chang EI, Ito R, Zhang H, Nguyen AT, Skoracki RJ et al. Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2015)
    40. [40]
      Celecoxib exerts antitumor effects in canine mammary tumor cells via COX‑2‑independent mechanisms. — Tamura D, Saito T, Murata K, Kawashima M, Asano R International journal of oncology (2015)
    41. [41]
      Apoptotic effects of two COX-2 inhibitors on breast adenocarcinoma cells through COX-2 independent pathway. — Norouzi M, Norouzi S, Amini M, Amanzadeh A, Irian S, Salimi M Journal of cellular biochemistry (2015)
    42. [42]
      Breast cancer--new aspects of tumor biology: are calcitriol and cyclooxygenase-2 possible targets for breast cancer? — Thill M, Terjung A, Friedrich M European journal of gynaecological oncology (2014)
    43. [43]
      Usefulness of selective COX-2 inhibitors as therapeutic agents against canine mammary tumors. — Saito T, Tamura D, Asano R Oncology reports (2014)
    44. [44]
      Alteration in apoptosis and cell cycle by celecoxib and/or fish oil in 7,12-dimethyl benzene (α) anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis. — Negi AK, Kansal S, Bhatnagar A, Agnihotri N Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine (2013)
    45. [45]
      A senescence-inflammatory switch from cancer-inhibitory to cancer-promoting mechanism. — Pribluda A, Elyada E, Wiener Z, Hamza H, Goldstein RE, Biton M et al. Cancer cell (2013)
    46. [46]
      Synergistic apoptotic effect of celecoxib and luteolin on breast cancer cells. — Jeon YW, Suh YJ Oncology reports (2013)
    47. [47]
      Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs target the pro-tumorigenic extracellular matrix of the postpartum mammary gland. — O'Brien J, Hansen K, Barkan D, Green J, Schedin P, O'Brien J et al. The International journal of developmental biology (2011)
    48. [48]
      Evaluation of the role of oxidative stress in chemopreventive action of fish oil and celecoxib in the initiation phase of 7,12-dimethyl benz(α)anthracene-induced mammary carcinogenesis. — Kansal S, Negi AK, Kaur R, Sarotra P, Sharma G, Aggarwal R et al. Tumour biology : the journal of the International Society for Oncodevelopmental Biology and Medicine (2011)
    49. [49]
      Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory and anti-tumor effect of Ipomoea obscura (L) and its mode of action through the inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines, nitric oxide and COX-2. — Hamsa TP, Kuttan G Inflammation (2011)
    50. [50]
      Synergistic anti-inflammatory effects of low doses of curcumin in combination with polyunsaturated fatty acids: docosahexaenoic acid or eicosapentaenoic acid. — Saw CL, Huang Y, Kong AN Biochemical pharmacology (2010)
    51. [51]
      Anti-inflammatory agents as cancer therapeutics. — Kashfi K Advances in pharmacology (San Diego, Calif.) (2009)
    52. [52]
      Dietary polyphenols, inflammation, and cancer. — Guo W, Kong E, Meydani M Nutrition and cancer (2009)
    53. [53]
      Celecoxib and melatonin in prevention of female rat mammary carcinogenesis. — Orendas P, Kassayova M, Kajo K, Ahlers I, Kubatka P, Bojkova B et al. Neoplasma (2009)
    54. [54]
      Downregulation of inflammatory responses by novel caffeic acid ester derivative by inhibiting NF-kappa B. — Bose JS, Gangan V, Jain SK, Manna SK Journal of clinical immunology (2009)
    55. [55]
      Prostaglandin E2 promotes tumor progression by inducing myeloid-derived suppressor cells. — Sinha P, Clements VK, Fulton AM, Ostrand-Rosenberg S Cancer research (2007)
    56. [56]
      Indirubin enhances tumor necrosis factor-induced apoptosis through modulation of nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway. — Sethi G, Ahn KS, Sandur SK, Lin X, Chaturvedi MM, Aggarwal BB The Journal of biological chemistry (2006)
    57. [57]
      Inflammation-associated cancer: NF-kappaB is the lynchpin. — Li Q, Withoff S, Verma IM Trends in immunology (2005)
    58. [58]
      Synthesis of some newer analogues of substituted dibenzoyl phenol as potent anti-inflammatory agents. — Khanum SA, D VT, Shashikanth S, Firdouse A Bioorganic & medicinal chemistry letters (2004)
    59. [59]
      Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2-dependent effects of the inhibitor SC236 when combined with ionizing radiation in mammary tumor cells derived from HER-2/neu mice. — Lanza-Jacoby S, Dicker AP, Miller S, Rosato FE, Flynn JT, Lavorgna SN et al. Molecular cancer therapeutics (2004)
    60. [60]
      Inflammation and cancer: an epidemiological perspective. — Thun MJ, Henley SJ, Gansler T Novartis Foundation symposium (2004)
    61. [61]
      Omega-3 fatty acids: implications for the treatment of tumor-associated inflammation. — Jho D, Babcock TA, Helton WS, Espat NJ The American surgeon (2003)
    62. [62]
      Current application of selective COX-2 inhibitors in cancer prevention and treatment. — Stratton MS, Alberts DS Oncology (Williston Park, N.Y.) (2002)
    63. [63]
      Cyclooxygenase inhibitors retard murine mammary tumor progression by reducing tumor cell migration, invasiveness and angiogenesis. — Rozic JG, Chakraborty C, Lala PK International journal of cancer (2001)
    64. [64]
      Effect of indomethacin on tumorigenicity and immunity induction in a murine model of mammary carcinoma. — Morecki S, Yacovlev L, Slavin S International journal of cancer (1998)
    65. [65]
      Regulation of proliferation of rat mammary tumor cells by inhibitors of cyclooxygenase and lipoxygenase. — Lee PP, Ip MM Prostaglandins, leukotrienes, and essential fatty acids (1992)
    66. [66]
      Effects of the prostaglandin synthetase inhibitor indomethacin on tumorigenesis, tumor proliferation, cell kinetics, and receptor contents of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced mammary carcinoma in Sprague-Dawley rats fed a high- or low-fat diet. — Noguchi M, Taniya T, Koyasaki N, Kumaki T, Miyazaki I, Mizukami Y Cancer research (1991)

    HemoChat

    by SPINAI

    Evidence-based clinical decision support powered by SNOMED-CT, Neo4j GraphRAG, and NASS/AO/NICE guidelines.

    ⚕ For clinical reference only. Not a substitute for professional judgment.

    © 2026 HemoChat. All rights reserved.
    Research·Pricing·Privacy & Terms·Refund·SNOMED-CT · NASS · AO Spine · NICE · GraphRAG