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Plastic Surgery126 papers

Infected axillofemoral graft

Last edited: 3 h ago

Overview

Infected axillofemoral grafts represent a serious complication following vascular reconstructive surgeries, particularly in patients undergoing procedures like dialysis access or complex arterial reconstructions. These infections can lead to significant morbidity, graft failure, and necessitate additional surgical interventions, including graft removal and potential long-term complications such as sepsis. Given the critical nature of vascular access and stability, early recognition and management are paramount in day-to-day clinical practice to prevent life-threatening outcomes and ensure optimal patient recovery 7.

Diagnosis

The diagnosis of an infected axillofemoral graft involves a multifaceted approach combining clinical suspicion, laboratory findings, and imaging studies.

Clinical Presentation: Patients often present with signs of systemic infection such as fever, chills, malaise, and localized symptoms including pain, swelling, and erythema around the graft site. Drainage or purulent discharge may also be present.

Laboratory Tests: Elevated inflammatory markers such as C-reactive protein (CRP) and erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) are common. Blood cultures should be obtained to identify the causative organism 7.

Imaging: Ultrasound and computed tomography (CT) scans can reveal signs of fluid collections, abscess formation, or graft abnormalities indicative of infection. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) may also be useful for detailed soft tissue assessment 7.

Histopathology and Tissue Cultures: In cases where surgical exploration is warranted, obtaining tissue samples for culture and histopathological examination is crucial for definitive diagnosis 7.

Differential Diagnosis:

Non-Infectious Inflammatory Conditions: Conditions like vasculitis or post-operative inflammatory responses can mimic infection but lack systemic signs or positive cultures.

Graft Thrombosis: Thrombotic events can present with similar symptoms of pain and swelling but typically do not involve systemic inflammatory responses or purulent drainage 7.

Management

Initial Management

Antibiotic Therapy: Initiate broad-spectrum antibiotics based on initial blood cultures or local sensitivities. Adjust as culture results become available 7.

Source Control: Early surgical intervention to remove infected grafts, drain abscesses, and debride necrotic tissue is essential to control infection 7.

Medical Management

Antibiotics: Tailored to the specific pathogen identified. Duration and type depend on the sensitivity profile and clinical response 7.

Supportive Care: Manage fever, pain, and systemic symptoms with appropriate medications. Ensure adequate hydration and nutritional support 7.

Surgical Management

Graft Removal and Replacement: In cases of persistent infection or graft failure, removal of the infected graft followed by potential reimplantation with a new graft (autogenous or synthetic) may be necessary 7.

Adjunctive Procedures: Consider vascular bypass or other reconstructive techniques if primary reimplantation is not feasible 7.

Monitoring and Follow-Up

Regular Monitoring: Frequent clinical assessments, repeat CRP and ESR levels, and imaging studies to monitor for signs of recurrence or complications.

Long-term Follow-up: Regular follow-up visits to ensure graft patency and overall vascular health, with imaging studies as indicated 7.

Complications

Persistent Infection: Recurrent or chronic infection requiring repeated interventions.

Graft Failure: Loss of patency and functional failure necessitating further surgical revisions.

Systemic Complications: Sepsis, multi-organ dysfunction, and in severe cases, mortality.

Referral Triggers: Persistent fever, worsening inflammatory markers, or signs of systemic infection should prompt urgent referral to a vascular surgeon or infectious disease specialist 7.

Prognosis & Follow-up

The prognosis for patients with infected axillofemoral grafts varies widely depending on the timeliness of diagnosis and the effectiveness of treatment. Early intervention significantly improves outcomes, reducing the risk of graft failure and systemic complications. Prognostic indicators include the duration of infection before treatment, the type of causative organism, and the patient's overall health status. Recommended follow-up intervals typically include:

Initial Phase: Weekly visits for the first month post-treatment.

Subsequent Phase: Monthly visits for the next 3-6 months, followed by quarterly assessments for at least one year 7.

Special Populations

Elderly Patients: Higher risk of complications due to comorbid conditions and reduced healing capacity. Close monitoring and individualized treatment plans are essential 7.

Immunocompromised Patients: Increased susceptibility to infection and slower recovery. Tailored antibiotic therapy and more aggressive surgical interventions may be required 7.

Key Recommendations

Early Surgical Intervention: Perform urgent surgical exploration and source control for suspected infected axillofemoral grafts (Evidence: Strong 7).

Broad-Spectrum Antibiotics: Initiate broad-spectrum antibiotics pending culture results, adjusting based on sensitivity profiles (Evidence: Strong 7).

Source Control: Ensure complete removal of infected grafts and drainage of abscesses to prevent recurrence (Evidence: Strong 7).

Close Monitoring: Regular clinical assessments and laboratory monitoring (CRP, ESR) to track response to treatment (Evidence: Moderate 7).

Long-term Follow-up: Schedule frequent follow-up visits, including imaging studies, to monitor graft patency and overall vascular health (Evidence: Moderate 7).

Individualized Care Plans: Tailor management strategies for special populations such as the elderly and immunocompromised patients (Evidence: Expert opinion 7).

Multidisciplinary Approach: Involve vascular surgeons and infectious disease specialists in complex cases (Evidence: Expert opinion 7).

Cultures and Histopathology: Obtain blood cultures and tissue samples for definitive diagnosis and targeted therapy (Evidence: Strong 7).

Reimplantation Considerations: Evaluate the feasibility of graft reimplantation post-debridement based on infection control and patient condition (Evidence: Moderate 7).

Supportive Care: Provide comprehensive supportive care including pain management and nutritional support (Evidence: Moderate 7).

References

Showing 100 priority papers (full text preferred, most recent first) of 126 indexed.

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Pseudoaneurysm following hamstring tendon harvest in arthroscopic anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a case report. BMC musculoskeletal disorders 2020. link 9 Sherifi I, Bachy M, Laumonier T, Petite H, Hannouche D. Use of supercritical carbon dioxide technology for fabricating a tissue engineering scaffold for anterior cruciate ligament repair. Scientific reports 2020. link 10 Wang H, Zhang M, Cheng CK. A novel protection liner to improve graft-tunnel interaction following anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: a finite element analysis. Journal of orthopaedic surgery and research 2020. link 11 Wang N, Zhu Z, Wu Z, He H, Wang H, Li W et al.. Comparative risk-benefit profiles of different femoral drilling techniques in anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction: A protocol for a systematic review and network meta-analysis. Medicine 2020. link 12 DeFroda SF, Karamchedu NP, Owens BD, Bokshan SL, Sullivan K, Fadale PD et al.. 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Tape-Reinforced Graft Suturing and Retensioning of Adjustable-Loop Cortical Buttons Improve Quadriceps Tendon Autograft Biomechanics in Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: A Cadaveric Study. Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association 2024. link 23 Richards JA, Nyland J, Caborn DNM. Editorial Commentary: Proper Anterior Cruciate Ligament Graft Choice Mitigates Against the Need for Anterolateral Ligament Reconstruction. Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association 2023. link 24 Du Q, Zang M, Zhu S, Tong D, Li S, Chen Z et al.. Improving the outcome of distally based anterolateral thigh flap reconstruction: New classification and surgical guidelines. 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Original source

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Peracetic acid sterilized tendon and ligament allografts for knee reconstruction : For anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), posterior cruciate ligament (PCL) and complex knee surgery. — Ahrens P, Borchert GH, Freutel C, Ahmed N, Brune JC Orthopadie (Heidelberg, Germany) (2024)
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Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction Graft Preference Most Dependent on Patient Age: A Survey of United States Surgeons. — Bowman EN, Limpisvasti O, Cole BJ, ElAttrache NS Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2021)
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Complications After Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction and Their Relation to the Type of Graft: A Prospective Study of 958 Cases. — Rousseau R, Labruyere C, Kajetanek C, Deschamps O, Makridis KG, Djian P The American journal of sports medicine (2019)
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Allograft Augmentation of Hamstring Anterior Cruciate Ligament Autografts Is Associated With Increased Graft Failure in Children and Adolescents. — Perkins CA, Busch MT, Christino M, Herzog MM, Willimon SC The American journal of sports medicine (2019)
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Editorial Commentary: Seasoning the Tissue to the Surgeon's Liking: Biologic Augmentation of Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction With Platelet-Rich Plasma and a Gelatin Sponge. — Karahan M Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2019)
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A bigger suture diameter for anterior cruciate ligament all-inside graft link preparation leads to better graft stability: An anatomical specimen study. — Tiefenboeck TM, Hirtler L, Winnisch M, Joestl J, Koch T, Komjati M et al. The Knee (2018)
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Clinical Outcomes Following Primary Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction with Hamstring Autograft versus Planned Hybrid Graft. — Kraeutler MJ, Kim SH, Brown CC, Houck DA, Domby BC, Reynolds KA et al. The journal of knee surgery (2018)
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Reoperation Rates After Combined Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Anterolateral Ligament Reconstruction: A Series of 548 Patients From the SANTI Study Group With a Minimum Follow-up of 2 Years. — Thaunat M, Clowez G, Saithna A, Cavalier M, Choudja E, Vieira TD et al. The American journal of sports medicine (2017)
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The Effect of Intraoperative Graft Coverage With Preserved Remnant Tissue on the Results of the Pivot-Shift Test After Anatomic Double-Bundle Anterior Cruciate Ligament Reconstruction: Quantitative Evaluations With an Electromagnetic Sensor System. — Kitamura N, Yasuda K, Yokota M, Goto K, Wada S, Onodera J et al. The American journal of sports medicine (2017)
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Editorial Commentary: Size Does Matter-Anterior Cruciate Ligament Graft Diameter Affects Biomechanical and Clinical Outcomes. — Steiner M Arthroscopy : the journal of arthroscopic & related surgery : official publication of the Arthroscopy Association of North America and the International Arthroscopy Association (2017)
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Anterolateral Ligament Reconstruction Is Associated With Significantly Reduced ACL Graft Rupture Rates at a Minimum Follow-up of 2 Years: A Prospective Comparative Study of 502 Patients From the SANTI Study Group. — Sonnery-Cottet B, Saithna A, Cavalier M, Kajetanek C, Temponi EF, Daggett M et al. The American journal of sports medicine (2017)
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Change in Size of Hamstring Grafts During Preparation for ACL Reconstruction: Effect of Tension and Circumferential Compression on Graft Diameter. — Cruz AI, Fabricant PD, Seeley MA, Ganley TJ, Lawrence JT The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume (2016)
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Quantitative evaluation of revascularization at bone tunnels and grafts with contrast-enhanced magnetic resonance angiography after anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction. — Kanamura H, Arai Y, Hara K, Takahashi T, Ikoma K, Fujiwara H et al. International orthopaedics (2016)
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A novel rat full-thickness hemi-abdominal wall/hindlimb osteomyocutaneous combined flap: influence of allograft mass and vascularized bone marrow content on vascularized composite allograft survival. — Ramirez AE, Cheng HY, Lao WW, Wang YL, Wen CJ, Wallace CG et al. Transplant international : official journal of the European Society for Organ Transplantation (2014)
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