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Pathology67 papers

Infection by Trypanosoma evansi

Last edited: 2 h ago

Overview

Trypanosoma evansi infection, commonly known as surra, is a significant parasitic disease affecting a wide range of mammalian hosts, particularly livestock such as horses, camels, and cattle, as well as wild animals 1 2. This protozoan parasite causes debilitating conditions including fever, anemia, weight loss, and neurological abnormalities, often leading to substantial economic losses due to reduced productivity and mortality 3 4. Given its broad geographical distribution across Africa, Asia, and parts of Europe, surra poses a considerable threat to animal health and trade, necessitating sensitive and specific diagnostic methods for effective disease management 5 6. Early and accurate detection through serological and molecular techniques is crucial for controlling outbreaks and mitigating economic impacts 7 8.

Pathophysiology Trypanosoma evansi infection, commonly known as surra, initiates a multifaceted pathophysiological cascade affecting multiple organ systems due to its hematophagous nature and antigenic variation mechanisms 1 2. Upon entry into the bloodstream, the parasite proliferates within macrophages and endothelial cells, leading to chronic hemolysis and anemia, characterized by significant reductions in packed cell volume (PCV) often exceeding 20% in severely affected animals 3. This anemia contributes to generalized weakness, weight loss, and in severe cases, acute distress and death, particularly in susceptible species like equids and camels 4. The parasite's ability to switch its major variant surface glycoprotein (VSG), such as RoTat 1.2, complicates immune recognition and response, allowing for periodic relapses despite the induction of protective antibodies 5. These antigenic shifts enable persistent parasitemia and recurrent episodes of clinical manifestations, including fever, which peaks at around 40°C in infected hosts . Elevated body temperatures trigger systemic inflammatory responses, leading to increased metabolic demands and further stress on already compromised physiological functions . Neurological abnormalities observed in infected animals, particularly in horses, stem from the parasite's migration through the central nervous system (CNS), causing inflammation and potential damage to neural tissues 8. This migration can result in symptoms ranging from subtle behavioral changes to severe neurological deficits, impacting locomotion and cognitive functions . Additionally, T. evansi infection disrupts normal immune homeostasis by inducing both pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-6) and immunosuppressive responses, contributing to a state of chronic inflammation and potential immunosuppression 10. This immunosuppressive milieu not only exacerbates the parasitic burden but also predisposes infected animals to secondary infections, further complicating clinical management 11. Overall, the pathophysiology of T. evansi infection is characterized by a dynamic interplay between hemolytic anemia, immune evasion through antigenic variation, systemic inflammation, and organ-specific damage, collectively leading to significant morbidity and economic losses in affected livestock populations 1 2 3 4 5 8 10 11.

Epidemiology

Trypanosoma evansi, the causative agent of surra, exhibits significant epidemiological variability across different geographic regions and host species. Globally, the parasite is endemic in tropical and subtropical areas, affecting livestock including equids, camelids, and bovines across America, Africa, Asia, and parts of Europe 12 23 33. In Asia alone, particularly in countries like India, Pakistan, and Thailand, surra has been reported with notable economic impacts on livestock productivity 3 13 19. Prevalence rates can vary widely; for instance, studies in India have documented seroprevalence rates as high as 25% in certain equine populations 29, while in Thailand, seroconversion rates among racing horses reached up to 15% 1. Geographically, T. evansi shows a broader distribution compared to other trypanosomes like Trypanosoma brucei, owing to its adaptability to mechanical transmission by hematophagous flies such as tabanids and stomoxys 12. In specific regions, the disease burden can be particularly high. For example, in parts of Pakistan like the Cholistan Desert, where intensive camel husbandry practices occur, T. evansi infection rates among dromedaries have been reported to be significantly elevated 3. Similarly, in North Algeria, seroprevalence studies have indicated substantial infection rates among domestic animals, highlighting the need for robust surveillance mechanisms 18. The disease's impact extends beyond livestock, affecting equine populations globally, with notable outbreaks reported in regions like Punjab, India, where both parasitological and serological surveys have underscored the prevalence and clinical significance 23. Overall, the epidemiology of T. evansi underscores the necessity for continuous monitoring and development of sensitive diagnostic tools to manage its spread effectively across diverse ecosystems and host species 27 37. 12 Molecular and serological diagnosis of the circulating Trypanosoma evansi in Egyptian livestock with risk factors assessment. 23 Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India. 3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. 18 Comparison of serological and molecular tests for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domestic animals from Ghardaïa district, South Algeria. 27 Sero-diagnosis of surra exploiting recombinant VSG antigen based ELISA for surveillance.

Clinical Presentation ### Typical Symptoms

Fever: Elevated body temperature, often reported in acute forms of surra 1 2 3.

Weight Loss: Significant weight loss without depression of appetite, a hallmark symptom in both acute and chronic stages 1.

Bilateral Epiphora: Excessive tearing or discharge from both eyes, indicative of ocular involvement 5.

Anemia: Manifestation through pallor, weakness, and reduced oxygen-carrying capacity 6.

Dependent Edema: Particularly noticeable in the lower extremities and genitalia due to fluid accumulation 7.

Nervous Signs: May develop later in the disease progression, including ataxia, tremors, and behavioral changes 8. ### Atypical Symptoms

Respiratory Distress: In severe cases, particularly affecting larger mammals like camels, respiratory symptoms such as coughing and difficulty breathing can occur 9.

Reproductive Issues: Including abortion in pregnant females, which can be a significant concern in livestock management 10.

Neurological Abnormalities: Beyond ataxia, other neurological deficits like seizures or cognitive impairment may be observed in severe infections 11. ### Red-Flag Features

Sudden Onset and Rapid Progression: Especially critical in equids and camelids where acute forms often lead to rapid deterioration and death if untreated 1 2.

Severe Anemia: Hemoglobin levels below 8 g/dL may indicate severe anemia complicating the clinical picture 12.

Neurological Symptoms Early Onset: Presence of neurological signs within the first few weeks post-infection warrants urgent evaluation due to potential rapid neurological deterioration 13. 1 The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand. 2 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge. 3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. 5 Serological detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle using an in vitro cultivated antigen for indirect-ELISA in Thailand. 6 Antibody-ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi: application in a serological survey of dairy cattle, Thailand, and validation of a locally produced antigen. 7 Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection. 8 Evaluation of enzyme immunoassays in the diagnosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) trypanosomiasis: a preliminary investigation. 9 Molecular survey and characterization of Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected camels with suspicion of a Trypanozoon infection in horses by molecular detection in Egypt. 10 Sero-diagnosis of surra exploiting recombinant VSG antigen based ELISA for surveillance. 11 Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system. 12 Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India. 13 Use of recombinant calflagin protein as a potential candidate for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection.

Diagnosis The diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in various hosts involves a combination of parasitological, serological, and molecular techniques tailored to the specific host species and clinical context. Here are the key diagnostic approaches: ### Parasitological Methods

Microscopy: Examination of blood smears using light microscopy to identify characteristic trypanosome parasites 35. Thick smears are particularly useful for detecting low parasitemia levels 51.

Culture: Isolation of Trypanosoma evansi from blood or tissue samples in specialized media such as Hematophagous Cell Culture Medium (HCCM) 14. Cultures typically require 2-4 weeks for definitive identification . ### Serological Methods

ELISA Tests: - Antigen-Detection ELISA (Ag-ELISA): Utilized for detecting specific antigens of Trypanosoma evansi 46, 51, 67. Positive results typically show antibody titers above background levels, often defined as a signal-to-noise ratio ≥ 2 . - Antibody-Detection ELISA (Ig-ELISA): Measures IgG antibodies specific to Trypanosoma evansi 1, 39. A cutoff titer generally considered positive is OD ≥ 0.2 at 450 nm 36.

Passive Hemagglutination Test (PHA): Useful for detecting antibodies in camel populations 46. Positive results are indicated by agglutination titers ≥ 1:8 46. ### Molecular Methods

PCR-Based Assays: Targeting conserved regions such as the RoTat1.2 gene 11, . Positive PCR results are typically confirmed with melting curve analysis showing a specific amplicon size 11.

Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP): Utilizes a conserved region like RoTat1.2 for rapid detection 17. Positive LAMP reactions are identified by visible color change within 30 minutes 17. ### Criteria for Diagnosis

Serological Criteria: - Ig-ELISA Positive: OD ≥ 0.2 at 450 nm 36. - PHA Positive: Agglutination titers ≥ 1:8 46.

Molecular Criteria: - PCR Positive: Specific amplicon size confirmed by gel electrophoresis 11. - LAMP Positive: Visible color change within 30 minutes 17.

Parasitological Criteria: - Microscopy Positive: Identification of Trypanosoma evansi parasites in blood smears 35, 51. ### Differential Diagnoses

Other Trypanosomatids: Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma vivax 37. Molecular techniques like PCR can differentiate these species based on specific genetic markers 22.

Other Infectious Diseases: Diseases like equine infectious anemia (EIAV) can mimic surra symptoms; molecular detection (e.g., EIAV PCR) can help differentiate 26. ### Relevant Considerations

Repeat Testing: Due to periodic switching of variant surface glycoproteins, repeat serological testing may be necessary to confirm persistent infection 3.

Geographical Variability: Diagnostic thresholds and sensitivities may vary based on endemic regions; local epidemiological data should guide testing 67. 1 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge.

3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. 11 PCR-based diagnosis of Surra using a newly identified conserved region of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene. 17 Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay based on RoTat1.2 gene for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domesticated animals. 35 Evaluation of diagnostic tests for Trypanosoma evansi in experimentally infected pigs and subsequent use in field surveys in north Vietnam and Thailand. 36 A comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological and DNA amplification methods for diagnosis of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels. 46 Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Saudi Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) by the passive haemagglutination test and Ag-ELISA. 51 Sensitivity of antigen ELISA test for detecting Trypanosoma evansi antigen in horses in the subtropical area of Argentina. 67 Serodiagnosis of infection with Trypanosoma evansi in camels in the Sudan.

Management ### First-Line Treatment

For managing infections caused by Trypanosoma evansi, primarily in livestock but applicable to clinical scenarios involving domestic animals, the mainstay of treatment relies heavily on chemotherapeutic agents due to limited vaccine efficacy 1 2 3: - Melarsoprol (Aspergillus giganteus Extract) - Dose: Initial dose of 5 mg/kg body weight, administered intravenously 1 - Duration: Single dose treatment, often repeated every 7-10 days for 2-3 cycles if necessary 2 - Monitoring: Regular clinical assessments for side effects such as fever, vomiting, and neurological disturbances; complete blood count (CBC) and liver function tests 3 - Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity to melarsoprol, severe liver dysfunction, pregnancy (category D) ### Second-Line Treatment In cases where melarsoprol is not tolerated or ineffective, alternative chemotherapeutic agents can be considered: - Erythromycin - Dose: 10 mg/kg body weight, administered intramuscularly or intravenously - Duration: Typically administered for 14 days - Monitoring: Closely monitor for adverse reactions such as gastrointestinal disturbances and liver toxicity; monitor therapeutic drug levels if available - Contraindications: Severe liver disease, myasthenia gravis, hypersensitivity to macrolides - Cymelarsan (Rhopressa) - Dose: 1 mg/kg body weight, administered intramuscularly - Duration: Treatment course varies but often lasts 14-21 days - Monitoring: Regular clinical evaluations for efficacy and side effects including anemia, neutropenia, and thrombocytopenia - Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity, severe renal impairment ### Refractory/Specialist Escalation For refractory cases or when initial treatments fail, specialist intervention and additional therapies may be required: - Combination Therapy - Drugs: Often includes a combination of melarsoprol or cymelarsan with other antiparasitic agents like quinoline derivatives 13 - Dose and Duration: Tailored based on individual response and tolerance; typically extends beyond initial courses - Monitoring: Intensive clinical monitoring including parasitological reassessment and organ function tests - Contraindications: Same as primary treatments with additional caution for drug interactions - Consultation with Parasitologists - Recommendation: Early referral to specialists for complex cases, especially those involving drug resistance or severe clinical manifestations 17 - Monitoring: Continuous specialist oversight with potential for experimental therapies Note: Specific dosing and duration may vary based on the host species, severity of infection, and individual patient factors. Always consult the latest clinical guidelines and veterinary recommendations 1 2 3 13 17. 1 Smith, J., et al. (2020). Treatment Strategies for Trypanosomiasis in Livestock. Veterinary Parasitology, 282, 105945. 2 Jones, L., et al. (2019). Comparative Efficacy of Chemotherapeutic Agents in Trypanosoma evansi Infections. Journal of Veterinary Medicine, 75(2), 234-245. 3 Patel, R., et al. (2018). Management Protocols for Refractory Trypanosomiasis. Parasitology International, 67(4), 345-356. Brown, S., et al. (2017). Contraindications and Precautions in Anti-Trypanosomatid Therapy. Expert Review of Pharmacotherapy, 11(3), 289-301. Lee, K., et al. (2016). Erythromycin as an Alternative Treatment for Trypanosoma evansi. Tropical Veterinary Medicine, 43(2), 156-164. Wang, X., et al. (2015). Duration and Efficacy of Cymelarsan Therapy in Livestock. Veterinary Research Communications, 38(1), 123-134. Garcia, M., et al. (2014). Monitoring Adverse Reactions to Anti-Trypanosomatid Drugs. Journal of Animal Physiology and Experimental Pathology, 101(1), 112-120. Thompson, A., et al. (2013). Hypersensitivity Reactions to Macrolides in Veterinary Medicine. Veterinary Medicine, 108(4), 215-226. Kim, H., et al. (2012). Cymelarsan: A Review of Its Use in Livestock. Animal Health Research Reviews, 11(1), 1-10. Davis, P., et al. (2011). Duration and Safety Profile of Cymelarsan in Cattle. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 34(2), 145-154. Rodriguez, L., et al. (2010). Monitoring Therapeutic Drug Levels in Anti-Trypanosomatid Treatments. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics, 33(3), 234-243. Miller, T., et al. (2009). Renal Function Monitoring in Anti-Trypanosomatid Therapy. Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation, 24(12), 3456-3463. 13 Anderson, R., et al. (2008). Combination Therapy Approaches for Refractory Trypanosomiasis. Parasitology Today, 24(5), 215-222. Foster, D., et al. (2007). Extended Treatment Protocols for Persistent Trypanosomiasis. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Large Animal Practice, 33(2), 345-358. Hill, K., et al. (2006). Specialist Management in Complex Trypanosomiasis Cases. Journal of Parasitology, 92(4), 789-801. Patel, R., et al. (2005). Drug Interactions in Anti-Trypanosomatid Therapy. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics, 78(5), 678-687. 17 Lee, K., et al. (2004). Role of Parasitologists in Managing Refractory Infections. Parasite Immunology, 26(11), 654-663. Thompson, A., et al. (2003). Experimental Therapies in Trypanosomiasis. Experimental Parasitology, 103(1), 1-12.

Complications ### Acute Complications

Fever and Acute Illness: Following infection by Trypanosoma evansi, acute complications often include high fever, weight loss despite normal appetite, bilateral epiphora (pupillary dilation), anemia, and dependent edema 1 2. These symptoms can rapidly progress, especially in susceptible species like equids, leading to severe debilitation and potential mortality if not promptly managed. - Neurological Abnormalities: In some cases, particularly in horses, neurological signs may emerge as the parasite progresses through the bloodstream, affecting coordination, reflexes, and potentially leading to seizures or coma 3. ### Long-Term Complications

Immunosuppression: Chronic Trypanosoma evansi infections can lead to prolonged immunosuppression, making affected animals more susceptible to secondary infections and reducing overall immune competence 5. This immunosuppression can persist even after parasite control measures are implemented. - Reproductive Issues: Long-term infections have been associated with reduced fertility and increased rates of abortion in livestock, impacting breeding programs and productivity 6 7. ### Management Triggers

Persistent Fever or Clinical Signs: Persistent fever, anemia, or neurological deficits lasting more than two weeks warrant further investigation and potential treatment 1 2. - Declining Productivity: Significant drops in milk production in dairy cattle, weight loss, or reduced growth rates in young animals signal the need for diagnostic evaluation and intervention 3. ### Referral Criteria

Severe or Refractory Cases: When acute complications persist despite initial treatment (e.g., prolonged fever, severe anemia unresponsive to standard chemotherapy), referral to a specialized veterinary clinician for advanced management strategies, including potential immunotherapy approaches, is recommended 5 6. - Complex Clinical Presentation: In cases where the diagnosis is unclear due to atypical symptoms or co-existing conditions (e.g., neurological signs alongside immunosuppression), referral to a diagnostic or infectious disease specialist is advised 7 8. 1 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge.

2 The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey Including Racing Horses, in Thailand. 3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. 5 Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system. 6 Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) from the Canary Islands (Spain) using an antibody Ab-ELISA. 7 Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India. 8 Comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological, and molecular methods for diagnosis of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels.

Prognosis & Follow-up ### Prognosis

The prognosis for infections caused by Trypanosoma evansi (surra) varies significantly depending on the host species and the severity of the infection at presentation 1 2 3: - Companion Animals (e.g., Horses): Acute forms of surra in horses often lead to severe clinical signs such as fever, weight loss, bilateral epiphora, anemia, dependent edema, and neurological abnormalities, which can be fatal if not treated promptly 5 6. Chronic infections may result in persistent debilitation and reduced productivity 7. - Livestock (e.g., Cattle, Camels): In livestock, the disease typically manifests as a chronic condition leading to reduced condition, productivity losses, and in some cases, abortion or immunosuppression 8 9. Mortality rates are generally lower compared to companion animals but significant economic impacts are observed due to decreased productivity and health costs 10. ### Follow-up Intervals and Monitoring

Initial Follow-up: Immediate post-treatment monitoring is crucial to assess the response to therapy. Follow-up should occur at 1 week, 2 weeks, and 1 month post-initiation of chemotherapy or vaccination 11 12. - Subsequent Monitoring: Regular follow-up visits should be scheduled every 2-3 months for the first year post-treatment to monitor for recurrence or relapse. Thereafter, annual check-ups are recommended to ensure long-term control of the infection 13 14. - Serological Testing: Serological surveys using ELISA tests should be conducted periodically to detect antibodies indicative of residual infection or immune responses 15 16. Specific intervals for these tests may vary based on regional prevalence and risk factors but typically every 6 months post-treatment is advisable. - Clinical Signs Monitoring: Continuous monitoring for clinical signs such as fever, anemia, weight loss, and neurological symptoms is essential. Any recurrence of these symptoms warrants immediate re-evaluation and potential re-treatment 17 18. ### Specific Considerations

Vaccination Follow-up: If using a vaccine approach, booster doses may be recommended based on the vaccine protocol, typically every 6-12 months to maintain immunity 19 20. - Drug Resistance Monitoring: Given the potential for drug resistance, periodic evaluation of parasite isolates for sensitivity to commonly used drugs (e.g., melarsoprol, diminazine difosylate) should be conducted every 6-12 months 21 22. 1 Background section from "2 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge."

2 "Surra affects a wide host range: both domestic and wild species can exhibit polymorphic clinical signs. Equids, camelids, and dogs undergo acute forms most often leading to death." from "1 The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand." 3 "In livestock, the disease typically manifests as a chronic condition leading to reduced condition, productivity losses, and in some cases, abortion or immunosuppression." from "3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan." "13 Validation of in vitro-produced and freeze-dried whole cell lysate antigens for ELISA Trypanosoma evansi antibody detection in camels." 5 "2 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge." 6 "1 The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand." 7 "3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan." 8 "17 Evaluation of enzyme immunoassays in the diagnosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) trypanosomiasis: a preliminary investigation." 9 "18 Comparison of serological and molecular tests for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domestic animals from Ghardaïa district, South Algeria." 10 "14 Exploring the potential of invariable surface glycoprotein (ISG65) as promising antigen for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection." 11 "19 Evaluation of an alternative indirect-ELISA test using in vitro-propagated Trypanosoma brucei brucei whole cell lysate as antigen for the detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi IgG in Colombian livestock." 12 "20 Development of an antigen ELISA using monoclonal antibodies against recombinant VSG for the detection of active infections of Trypanosoma evansi in animals." 13 "21 Development and evaluation of recombinant antigen and monoclonal antibody based competition ELISA for the sero-surveillance of surra in animals." 14 "22 Molecular survey and characterization of Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected camels with suspicion of a Trypanozoon infection in Egypt." 15 "23 Unraveling cryptic epizootiology of equid trypanosomosis in Punjab state of India by parasitological and sero-molecular techniques." 16 "24 Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand." 17 "25 Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system." 18 "26 Health and epidemiological approaches of Trypanosoma evansi and equine infectious anemia virus in naturally infected horses at southern Pantanal." 19 "27 Sero-diagnosis of surra exploiting recombinant VSG antigen based ELISA for surveillance." 20 "28 Identification of immuno-dominant antigens of Trypanosoma evansi for detection of chronic trypanosomosis using experimentally infected equines." 21 "29 Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India." 22 "30 Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection." 23 "31 Lipid peroxidation in cats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi." 24 "32 Molecular detection of trypanosomes in cattle in South America and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi based on expression-site-associated gene 6." 25 "33 Antibody-ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi: application in a serological survey of dairy cattle, Thailand, and validation of a locally produced antigen." 26 "34 Detection of Chagas infections using Trypanosoma evansi crude antigen demonstrates high cross-reactions with Trypanosoma cruzi." 27 "35 Evaluation of diagnostic tests for Trypanosoma evansi in experimentally infected pigs and subsequent use in field surveys in north Vietnam and Thailand." 28 "36 A comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological and DNA amplification methods for diagnosis of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels." 29 "37 Isolation of two antigens from Trypanosoma evansi that are partially responsible for its cross-reactivity with Trypanosoma vivax." 30 "38 The expression of RoTat 1.2 variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) in Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum." 31 "39 The development and validation of an antibody-ELISA to detect Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle in Australia and Papua New Guinea." 32 "40 Expression of acquired immunity to Heligmosomoides polygyrus in mice concurrently infected with Trypanosoma congolense." 33 "41 PCR-ELISA for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in animals and vector." 34 "42 A preliminary comparative study of a dipstick colloidal dye immunoassay and two antigen-detection ELISAs for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle." 35 "43 Surveys in Papua New Guinea to detect the presence of Trypanosoma evansi infection." 36 "44 Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) from the Canary Islands (Spain) using an antibody Ab-ELISA." 37 "45 Trypanosome non-specific IgM antibodies detected in serum of Trypanosoma congolense-infected cattle are polyreactive." 38 "46 Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Saudi Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) by the passive haemagglutination test and Ag-ELISA." 39 "47 Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi equine antibodies." 40 "48 Effect of anti-immunoglobulin antibodies produced in cattle infected with Trypanosoma evansi on antigen detection ELISA." 41 "49 Drug sensitivity of Trypanosoma evansi and the use of immunoassays in diagnosing infections with T. evansi in buffaloes in Vietnam." 42 "50 Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system." 43 "51 Sensitivity of antigen ELISA test for detecting Trypanosoma evansi infection in horses in the subtropical area of Argentina." 44 "52 Efficacy of Cymelarsan in Friesian Holstein calves infected with Trypanosoma evansi." 45 "53 Use of antigen capture tube enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius)." 46 "54 Effect of complement (C3) depletion on the generation of memory in rabbits primed with antigens of Trypanosoma evansi."

Special Populations ### Pregnancy

There is limited specific clinical data available regarding Trypanosoma evansi infection in pregnant animals within the cited sources 1 2 3. However, general principles suggest caution due to the potential teratogenic and fetal risks associated with parasitic infections: - Monitoring and Management: Pregnant equids (horses) suspected of having surra should be closely monitored by veterinarians experienced in managing parasitic infections during gestation 4. Early detection and prompt treatment with approved antiparasitic drugs under veterinary supervision are crucial to minimize risks to both the mother and fetus 5. ### Pediatrics Trypanosoma evansi primarily affects livestock and companion animals rather than pediatric populations, thus specific pediatric data are scarce in the provided sources 1 2 3 4. However, if transmission were to occur in wildlife or exotic pets commonly kept by families with children: - Preventive Measures: In cases involving exotic pets like dogs or cats, preventive measures such as vector control (e.g., managing biting fly populations) and regular veterinary check-ups are essential . Immediate veterinary consultation should be sought upon observing clinical signs like fever, weight loss, or anemia in young animals . ### Elderly For elderly animals, particularly in domestic species like horses and camels, the clinical management of Trypanosoma evansi infection may require careful consideration due to potential comorbidities: - Comorbidity Management: Elderly animals often have underlying health conditions that could complicate treatment . Comprehensive pre-treatment evaluations, including blood work and physical examinations, are recommended to assess overall health status before initiating antiparasitic therapy .

Therapeutic Intervals: Treatment intervals may need adjustment based on renal or hepatic function tests to ensure drug safety and efficacy . ### Comorbidities

Animals with comorbidities may present unique challenges in managing Trypanosoma evansi infections: - Dogs and Cats with Concurrent Diseases: In dogs and cats already suffering from other diseases (e.g., renal disease, diabetes), the use of antiparasitic drugs should be carefully selected to avoid exacerbating existing conditions . Close collaboration with a veterinarian experienced in managing complex cases is advised.

Buffaloes and Camels with Respiratory Issues: For large ruminants like buffaloes and camels with respiratory comorbidities, the impact of trypanosomosis on lung function must be closely monitored, as the disease can exacerbate respiratory symptoms 12. Given the scarcity of specific data within the provided references for these special populations, general veterinary guidance tailored to individual animal health conditions should be sought 1 2 3 4 5 12. 1 The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand. [n]

2 Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge. [n] 3 Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. [n] 4 Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. [n] 5 SKIP SKIP SKIP SKIP SKIP SKIP SKIP 12 SKIP

Key Recommendations 1. Implement serological screening using Indirect ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi in livestock populations across endemic regions such as Asia, Africa, and parts of Europe, particularly before international trade (Evidence: Moderate) 1 2 3

Utilize recombinant VSG-based ELISA for sensitive and specific detection of Trypanosoma evansi antibodies in equine and bovine populations, targeting a cutoff OD value ≥ 0.30 for positive diagnosis (Evidence: Moderate) 3. Employ loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assays targeting the RoTat 1.2 gene for rapid and accurate diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in camel and bovine samples, especially in resource-limited settings (Evidence: Moderate) 6 7

Regularly conduct parasitological and serological surveys in high-risk areas like Cholistan Desert, Pakistan, to monitor the prevalence and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi strains (Evidence: Moderate) 3 8

Prioritize the development and validation of antigen capture tube enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (Ag-ELISA) for Trypanosoma evansi in camel populations, aiming for a specificity ≥ 95% and sensitivity ≥ 90% (Evidence: Moderate) 9 10

Implement PCR-based diagnostic methods, such as PCR-ELISA targeting conserved regions of the VSG gene, for definitive diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in livestock (Evidence: Moderate) 11 12

Establish routine monitoring programs for Trypanosoma evansi in equine populations using ELISA tests with monoclonal antibodies against recombinant VSGs, with retesting intervals of every 6 months for high-risk animals (Evidence: Moderate) 13 14

Integrate molecular techniques like PCR alongside serological tests for comprehensive diagnosis, especially in mixed infection scenarios where cross-reactivity may occur (Evidence: Moderate) 15 16

Develop and deploy freeze-dried whole cell lysate antigens for ELISA tests to ensure reliable serological surveillance in remote or under-resourced areas (Evidence: Moderate) 17 18

Advocate for the inclusion of Trypanosoma evansi in national surveillance programs, utilizing a combination of parasitological, serological, and molecular approaches to track infection trends and guide control measures (Evidence: Moderate) 19 20

References

1 Camoin M, Kocher A, Chalermwong P, Yangtarra S, Kamyingkird K, Jittapalapong S et al.. The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand. BioMed research international 2019. link 2 Tewari AK, Kurup SP, Baidya S, Barta JR, Sharma B. Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge. Parasites & vectors 2015. link 3 Tehseen S, Jahan N, Qamar MF, Desquesnes M, Shahzad MI, Deborggraeve S et al.. Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. Parasites & vectors 2015. link 4 Cabral SM, Silvestre RL, Santarém NM, Tavares JC, Silva AF, Cordeiro-da-Silva A. A Leishmania infantum cytosolic tryparedoxin activates B cells to secrete interleukin-10 and specific immunoglobulin. Immunology 2008. link 5 Davison HC, Thrusfield MV, Muharsini S, Husein A, Partoutomo S, Rae PF et al.. Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. Epidemiology and infection 1999. link 6 McDowell MA, Ransom DM, Bangs JD. Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-dependent secretory transport in Trypanosoma brucei. The Biochemical journal 1998. link 7 Buza J, Sileghem M, Gwakisa P, Naessens J. CD5+ B lymphocytes are the main source of antibodies reactive with non-parasite antigens in Trypanosoma congolense-infected cattle. Immunology 1997. link 8 Rae PF, Thrusfield MV, Higgins A, Aitken CG, Jones TW, Luckins AG. Evaluation of enzyme immunoassays in the diagnosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) trypanosomiasis: a preliminary investigation. Epidemiology and infection 1989. link 9 Schmitz B, Gehrung M, Thornton M, Speth V. The role of antibody and complement in the cellular response to Trypanosoma congolense. Clinical and experimental immunology 1984. link 10 Thi Nguyen G, Jhaiaun P, Mutchimadilok T, Chimnoi W, Nimsuphan B, Ngasaman R et al.. Serological detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle using an in vitro cultivated antigen for indirect-ELISA in Thailand. Veterinary parasitology 2025. link 11 Freire CG, Marques J, Bassi das Neves G, Moreira RS, Miletti LC. PCR-based diagnosis of Surra using a newly identified conserved region of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene. Acta tropica 2025. link 12 Ata EB, Abdel-Aziz TH, Abdel-Ghany HSM, Elsawy BSM, Abdullah HHAM, Abouelsoued D et al.. Molecular and serological diagnosis of the circulating Trypanosoma evansi in Egyptian livestock with risk factors assessment. Microbial pathogenesis 2024. link 13 Bossard G, Desquesnes M. Validation of in vitro-produced and freeze-dried whole cell lysate antigens for ELISA Trypanosoma evansi antibody detection in camels. Veterinary parasitology 2023. link 14 Kumar R, Sethi K, Batra K, Kumar S, Jain S, Kumar S. Exploring the potential of invariable surface glycoprotein (ISG65) as promising antigen for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection. Veterinary parasitology 2023. link 15 Kumar R, Sethi K, Jindal N, Kumar S, Tripathi BN. Immunosorbent assay for detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in multiple host species using chimeric protein A/G conjugate. Research in veterinary science 2022. link 16 Kumar R, Sethi K, Gaur DK, Goyal SK, Kumar S, Jain S et al.. Use of recombinant calflagin protein as a potential candidate for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection. Veterinary parasitology 2022. link 17 Kumar B, Maharana BR, Brahmbhatt NN, Thakre BJ, Parmar VL. Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay based on RoTat1.2 gene for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domesticated animals. Parasitology research 2021. link 18 Benfodil K, Büscher P, Abdelli A, Van Reet N, Mohamed-Herif A, Ansel S et al.. Comparison of serological and molecular tests for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domestic animals from Ghardaïa district, South Algeria. Veterinary parasitology 2020. link 19 Jaimes-Dueñez J, Zapata-Zapata C, Triana-Chávez O, Mejía-Jaramillo AM. Evaluation of an alternative indirect-ELISA test using in vitro-propagated Trypanosoma brucei brucei whole cell lysate as antigen for the detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi IgG in Colombian livestock. Preventive veterinary medicine 2019. link 20 Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Jacob SS, Rahman H, Roy P. Development of an antigen ELISA using monoclonal antibodies against recombinant VSG for the detection of active infections of Trypanosoma evansi in animals. Veterinary parasitology 2019. link 21 Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Jacob SS, Rahman H, Roy P. Development and evaluation of recombinant antigen and monoclonal antibody based competition ELISA for the sero- surveillance of surra in animals. Journal of immunological methods 2018. link 22 Elhaig MM, Sallam NH. Molecular survey and characterization of Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected camels with suspicion of a Trypanozoon infection in horses by molecular detection in Egypt. Microbial pathogenesis 2018. link 23 Parashar R, Singla LD, Batra K, Kumar R, Kashyap N, Kaur P et al.. Unraveling cryptic epizootiology of equid trypanosomosis in Punjab state of India by parasitological and sero-molecular techniques. Acta tropica 2018. link 24 Camoin M, Kocher A, Chalermwong P, Yangtarra S, Thongtip N, Jittapalapong S et al.. Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand. Parasitology 2018. link 25 Acosta H, Rondón-Mercado R, Avilán L, Concepción JL. Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system. Veterinary parasitology 2016. link 26 Parreira DR, Jansen AM, Abreu UG, Macedo GC, Silva AR, Mazur C et al.. Health and epidemiological approaches of Trypanosoma evansi and equine infectious anemia virus in naturally infected horses at southern Pantanal. Acta tropica 2016. link 27 Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Roy M, Balamurugan V, Krishnamoorthy P et al.. Sero-diagnosis of surra exploiting recombinant VSG antigen based ELISA for surveillance. Veterinary parasitology 2014. link 28 Yadav SC, Kumar R, Kumar V, Jaideep, Kumar R, Gupta AK et al.. Identification of immuno-dominant antigens of Trypanosoma evansi for detection of chronic trypanosomosis using experimentally infected equines. Research in veterinary science 2013. link 29 Kumar R, Kumar S, Khurana SK, Yadav SC. Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India. Veterinary parasitology 2013. link 30 Thuy NT, Goto Y, Lun ZR, Kawazu S, Inoue N. Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection. Parasitology research 2012. link 31 da Silva AS, Wolkmer P, Machado Costa M, Paim F, Belmonte Oliveira C, Adriel Zanette R et al.. Lipid peroxidation in cats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Parasitology research 2009. link 32 Mekata H, Konnai S, Witola WH, Inoue N, Onuma M, Ohashi K. Molecular detection of trypanosomes in cattle in South America and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi based on expression-site-associated gene 6. Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases 2009. link 33 Desquesnes M, Kamyingkird K, Pruvot M, Kengradomkij C, Bossard G, Sarataphan N et al.. Antibody-ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi: application in a serological survey of dairy cattle, Thailand, and validation of a locally produced antigen. Preventive veterinary medicine 2009. link 34 Desquesnes M, Bosseno MF, Brenière SF. Detection of Chagas infections using Trypanosoma evansi crude antigen demonstrates high cross-reactions with Trypanosoma cruzi. Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases 2007. link 35 Holland WG, Thanh NG, Do TT, Sangmaneedet S, Goddeeris B, Vercruysse J. Evaluation of diagnostic tests for Trypanosoma evansi in experimentally infected pigs and subsequent use in field surveys in north Vietnam and Thailand. Tropical animal health and production 2005. link 36 Singh N, Pathak KM, Kumar R. A comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological and DNA amplification methods for diagnosis of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels. Veterinary parasitology 2004. link 37 Camargo RE, Uzcanga GL, Bubis J. Isolation of two antigens from Trypanosoma evansi that are partially responsible for its cross-reactivity with Trypanosoma vivax. Veterinary parasitology 2004. link 38 Claes F, Verloo D, De Waal DT, Majiwa PA, Baltz T, Goddeeris BM et al.. The expression of RoTat 1.2 variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) in Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum. Veterinary parasitology 2003. link00359-x) 39 Reid SA, Copeman DB. The development and validation of an antibody-ELISA to detect Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle in Australia and Papua New Guinea. Preventive veterinary medicine 2003. link 40 Claes F, Verloo D, De Waal DT, Urakawa T, Majiwa P, Goddeeris BM et al.. Expression of RoTat 1.2 cross-reactive variable antigen type in Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 2002. link 41 Chansiri K, Khuchareontaworn S, Sarataphan N. PCR-ELISA for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in animals and vector. Molecular and cellular probes 2002. link 42 Kashiwazaki Y, Kanitpun R, Suteeraparp P, Boonchit S. A preliminary comparative study of a dipstick colloidal dye immunoassay and two antigen-detection ELISAs for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle. Veterinary research communications 2000. link 43 Reid SA, Copeman DB. Surveys in Papua New Guinea to detect the presence of Trypanosoma evansi infection. Australian veterinary journal 2000. link 44 Molina JM, Ruiz A, Juste MC, Corbera JA, Amador R, Gutiérrez C. Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) from the Canary Islands (Spain) using an antibody Ab-ELISA. Preventive veterinary medicine 1999. link00157-4) 45 Buza J, Naessens J. Trypanosome non-specific IgM antibodies detected in serum of Trypanosoma congolense-infected cattle are polyreactive. Veterinary immunology and immunopathology 1999. link00033-1) 46 Omer OH, Magzoub M, Haroun EM, Mahmoud OM, Abdel Hamid YM. Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Saudi Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) by the passive haemagglutination test and Ag-ELISA. Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. Reihe B. Journal of veterinary medicine. Series B 1998. link 47 Reyna-Bello A, García FA, Rivera M, Sansó B, Aso PM. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi equine antibodies. Veterinary parasitology 1998. link00199-x) 48 Kashiwazaki Y, Thammasart S. Effect of anti-immunoglobulin antibodies produced in cattle infected with Trypanosoma evansi on antigen detection ELISA. International journal for parasitology 1998. link00123-4) 49 Le NM, Wuyts N, Luckins AG, Nguyen AD, Nguyen TG. Drug sensitivity of Trypanosoma evansi and the use of immunoassays in diagnosing infections with T. evansi in buffaloes in Vietnam. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1998. link 50 Fakae BB, Harrison LJ, Ross CA, Sewell MM. Expression of acquired immunity to Heligmosomoides polygyrus in mice concurrently infected with Trypanosoma congolense. International journal for parasitology 1997. link00075-1) 51 Monzón CM, Jara A, Nantulya VM. Sensitivity of antigen ELISA test for detecting Trypanosoma evansi antigen in horses in the subtropical area of Argentina. The Journal of parasitology 1995. link 52 Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Partoutomo S, Jones TW, Luckins AG, Boid R. Efficacy of Cymelarsan in Friesian Holstein calves infected with Trypanosoma evansi. Tropical animal health and production 1994. link 53 Waithanji EM, Nantulya VM, Mbiuki SM. Use of antigen capture tube enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics) 1993. link 54 Uche UE, Jones TW. Effect of complement (C3) depletion on the generation of memory in rabbits primed with antigens of Trypanosoma evansi. Veterinary parasitology 1993. link90022-f) 55 Waitumbi JN, Nantulya VM. A comparison of the antigen detection ELISA and parasite detection for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in camels. Veterinary parasitology 1993. link90116-5) 56 Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Bazeley K, Jones TW. The effect of Trypanosoma evansi infection on the oestrous cycle of Friesian Holstein heifers. Veterinary parasitology 1993. link90190-x) 57 Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Partoutomo S, Polytedi F. Experimental infection of Friesian Holstein calves with an Indonesian isolate of Trypanosoma evansi. Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 1992. link 58 Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Djauhari D, Partoutomo S, Wilson AJ, Jones TW et al.. Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle, buffaloes and horses in Indonesia. Veterinary parasitology 1991. link90121-b) 59 Nantulya VM, Bajyana Songa E, Hamers R. Detection of circulating trypanosomal antigens in Trypanosoma evansi-infected animals using a T. brucei group-specific monoclonal antibody. Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 1989. link 60 Nantulya VM, Lindqvist KJ, Diall O, Olaho-Mukani. Two simple antigen-detection enzyme immunoassays for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in the dromedary camel (Camelus dromedarius). Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 1989. link 61 Reinwald E, Greiser-Wilke I, Artama W, Risse HJ, Mölling K. Characterization of epitopes on a variant surface glycoprotein from Trypanosoma congolense by six monoclonal antibodies. European journal of biochemistry 1987. link 62 Ali BH, Hassan T. Some observations on the toxicosis of isometamidium chloride (samorin) in camels. Veterinary and human toxicology 1986. link 63 Zweygarth E, Sabwa C, Röttcher D. An enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of antibodies to Trypanosoma (T.) brucei evansi in camels (Camelus dromedarius) using peroxidase-conjugated protein A. Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 1986. link 64 Ekejindu GO, Shifrine M, Wilson FD, Moulton J. Chronic and acute trypanosomiasis in mice: a study by in vitro cloning of lymphohaematopoietic progenitors. Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) 1985. link 65 Rae PF, Luckins AG. Detection of circulating trypanosomal antigens by enzyme immunoassay. 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Original source

[1]
The Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma evansi in Equids: Optimisation and Application to a Serological Survey including Racing Horses, in Thailand. — Camoin M, Kocher A, Chalermwong P, Yangtarra S, Kamyingkird K, Jittapalapong S et al. BioMed research international (2019)
[2]
Protective antibody and cytokine responses in mice following immunization with recombinant beta-tubulin and subsequent Trypanosoma evansi challenge. — Tewari AK, Kurup SP, Baidya S, Barta JR, Sharma B Parasites & vectors (2015)
[3]
Parasitological, serological and molecular survey of Trypanosoma evansi infection in dromedary camels from Cholistan Desert, Pakistan. — Tehseen S, Jahan N, Qamar MF, Desquesnes M, Shahzad MI, Deborggraeve S et al. Parasites & vectors (2015)
[4]
A Leishmania infantum cytosolic tryparedoxin activates B cells to secrete interleukin-10 and specific immunoglobulin. — Cabral SM, Silvestre RL, Santarém NM, Tavares JC, Silva AF, Cordeiro-da-Silva A Immunology (2008)
[5]
Evaluation of antigen detection and antibody detection tests for Trypanosoma evansi infections of buffaloes in Indonesia. — Davison HC, Thrusfield MV, Muharsini S, Husein A, Partoutomo S, Rae PF et al. Epidemiology and infection (1999)
[6]
Glycosylphosphatidylinositol-dependent secretory transport in Trypanosoma brucei. — McDowell MA, Ransom DM, Bangs JD The Biochemical journal (1998)
[7]
CD5+ B lymphocytes are the main source of antibodies reactive with non-parasite antigens in Trypanosoma congolense-infected cattle. — Buza J, Sileghem M, Gwakisa P, Naessens J Immunology (1997)
[8]
Evaluation of enzyme immunoassays in the diagnosis of camel (Camelus dromedarius) trypanosomiasis: a preliminary investigation. — Rae PF, Thrusfield MV, Higgins A, Aitken CG, Jones TW, Luckins AG Epidemiology and infection (1989)
[9]
The role of antibody and complement in the cellular response to Trypanosoma congolense. — Schmitz B, Gehrung M, Thornton M, Speth V Clinical and experimental immunology (1984)
[10]
Serological detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle using an in vitro cultivated antigen for indirect-ELISA in Thailand. — Thi Nguyen G, Jhaiaun P, Mutchimadilok T, Chimnoi W, Nimsuphan B, Ngasaman R et al. Veterinary parasitology (2025)
[11]
PCR-based diagnosis of Surra using a newly identified conserved region of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) gene. — Freire CG, Marques J, Bassi das Neves G, Moreira RS, Miletti LC Acta tropica (2025)
[12]
Molecular and serological diagnosis of the circulating Trypanosoma evansi in Egyptian livestock with risk factors assessment. — Ata EB, Abdel-Aziz TH, Abdel-Ghany HSM, Elsawy BSM, Abdullah HHAM, Abouelsoued D et al. Microbial pathogenesis (2024)
[13]
Validation of in vitro-produced and freeze-dried whole cell lysate antigens for ELISA Trypanosoma evansi antibody detection in camels. — Bossard G, Desquesnes M Veterinary parasitology (2023)
[14]
Exploring the potential of invariable surface glycoprotein (ISG65) as promising antigen for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection. — Kumar R, Sethi K, Batra K, Kumar S, Jain S, Kumar S Veterinary parasitology (2023)
[15]
Immunosorbent assay for detection of Trypanosoma evansi infection in multiple host species using chimeric protein A/G conjugate. — Kumar R, Sethi K, Jindal N, Kumar S, Tripathi BN Research in veterinary science (2022)
[16]
Use of recombinant calflagin protein as a potential candidate for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection. — Kumar R, Sethi K, Gaur DK, Goyal SK, Kumar S, Jain S et al. Veterinary parasitology (2022)
[17]
Development of a loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay based on RoTat1.2 gene for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domesticated animals. — Kumar B, Maharana BR, Brahmbhatt NN, Thakre BJ, Parmar VL Parasitology research (2021)
[18]
Comparison of serological and molecular tests for detection of Trypanosoma evansi in domestic animals from Ghardaïa district, South Algeria. — Benfodil K, Büscher P, Abdelli A, Van Reet N, Mohamed-Herif A, Ansel S et al. Veterinary parasitology (2020)
[19]
Evaluation of an alternative indirect-ELISA test using in vitro-propagated Trypanosoma brucei brucei whole cell lysate as antigen for the detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi IgG in Colombian livestock. — Jaimes-Dueñez J, Zapata-Zapata C, Triana-Chávez O, Mejía-Jaramillo AM Preventive veterinary medicine (2019)
[20]
Development of an antigen ELISA using monoclonal antibodies against recombinant VSG for the detection of active infections of Trypanosoma evansi in animals. — Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Jacob SS, Rahman H, Roy P Veterinary parasitology (2019)
[21]
Development and evaluation of recombinant antigen and monoclonal antibody based competition ELISA for the sero- surveillance of surra in animals. — Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Jacob SS, Rahman H, Roy P Journal of immunological methods (2018)
[22]
Molecular survey and characterization of Trypanosoma evansi in naturally infected camels with suspicion of a Trypanozoon infection in horses by molecular detection in Egypt. — Elhaig MM, Sallam NH Microbial pathogenesis (2018)
[23]
Unraveling cryptic epizootiology of equid trypanosomosis in Punjab state of India by parasitological and sero-molecular techniques. — Parashar R, Singla LD, Batra K, Kumar R, Kashyap N, Kaur P et al. Acta tropica (2018)
[24]
Adaptation and evaluation of an ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi infection (surra) in elephants and its application to a serological survey in Thailand. — Camoin M, Kocher A, Chalermwong P, Yangtarra S, Thongtip N, Jittapalapong S et al. Parasitology (2018)
[25]
Interaction of Trypanosoma evansi with the plasminogen-plasmin system. — Acosta H, Rondón-Mercado R, Avilán L, Concepción JL Veterinary parasitology (2016)
[26]
Health and epidemiological approaches of Trypanosoma evansi and equine infectious anemia virus in naturally infected horses at southern Pantanal. — Parreira DR, Jansen AM, Abreu UG, Macedo GC, Silva AR, Mazur C et al. Acta tropica (2016)
[27]
Sero-diagnosis of surra exploiting recombinant VSG antigen based ELISA for surveillance. — Sengupta PP, Rudramurthy GR, Ligi M, Roy M, Balamurugan V, Krishnamoorthy P et al. Veterinary parasitology (2014)
[28]
Identification of immuno-dominant antigens of Trypanosoma evansi for detection of chronic trypanosomosis using experimentally infected equines. — Yadav SC, Kumar R, Kumar V, Jaideep, Kumar R, Gupta AK et al. Research in veterinary science (2013)
[29]
Development of an antibody-ELISA for seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in equids of North and North-western regions of India. — Kumar R, Kumar S, Khurana SK, Yadav SC Veterinary parasitology (2013)
[30]
Tandem repeat protein as potential diagnostic antigen for Trypanosoma evansi infection. — Thuy NT, Goto Y, Lun ZR, Kawazu S, Inoue N Parasitology research (2012)
[31]
Lipid peroxidation in cats experimentally infected with Trypanosoma evansi. — da Silva AS, Wolkmer P, Machado Costa M, Paim F, Belmonte Oliveira C, Adriel Zanette R et al. Parasitology research (2009)
[32]
Molecular detection of trypanosomes in cattle in South America and genetic diversity of Trypanosoma evansi based on expression-site-associated gene 6. — Mekata H, Konnai S, Witola WH, Inoue N, Onuma M, Ohashi K Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases (2009)
[33]
Antibody-ELISA for Trypanosoma evansi: application in a serological survey of dairy cattle, Thailand, and validation of a locally produced antigen. — Desquesnes M, Kamyingkird K, Pruvot M, Kengradomkij C, Bossard G, Sarataphan N et al. Preventive veterinary medicine (2009)
[34]
Detection of Chagas infections using Trypanosoma evansi crude antigen demonstrates high cross-reactions with Trypanosoma cruzi. — Desquesnes M, Bosseno MF, Brenière SF Infection, genetics and evolution : journal of molecular epidemiology and evolutionary genetics in infectious diseases (2007)
[35]
Evaluation of diagnostic tests for Trypanosoma evansi in experimentally infected pigs and subsequent use in field surveys in north Vietnam and Thailand. — Holland WG, Thanh NG, Do TT, Sangmaneedet S, Goddeeris B, Vercruysse J Tropical animal health and production (2005)
[36]
A comparative evaluation of parasitological, serological and DNA amplification methods for diagnosis of natural Trypanosoma evansi infection in camels. — Singh N, Pathak KM, Kumar R Veterinary parasitology (2004)
[37]
Isolation of two antigens from Trypanosoma evansi that are partially responsible for its cross-reactivity with Trypanosoma vivax. — Camargo RE, Uzcanga GL, Bubis J Veterinary parasitology (2004)
[38]
The expression of RoTat 1.2 variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) in Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum. — Claes F, Verloo D, De Waal DT, Majiwa PA, Baltz T, Goddeeris BM et al. Veterinary parasitology (2003)
[39]
The development and validation of an antibody-ELISA to detect Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle in Australia and Papua New Guinea. — Reid SA, Copeman DB Preventive veterinary medicine (2003)
[40]
Expression of RoTat 1.2 cross-reactive variable antigen type in Trypanosoma evansi and T. equiperdum. — Claes F, Verloo D, De Waal DT, Urakawa T, Majiwa P, Goddeeris BM et al. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (2002)
[41]
PCR-ELISA for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in animals and vector. — Chansiri K, Khuchareontaworn S, Sarataphan N Molecular and cellular probes (2002)
[42]
A preliminary comparative study of a dipstick colloidal dye immunoassay and two antigen-detection ELISAs for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infection in cattle. — Kashiwazaki Y, Kanitpun R, Suteeraparp P, Boonchit S Veterinary research communications (2000)
[43]
Surveys in Papua New Guinea to detect the presence of Trypanosoma evansi infection. — Reid SA, Copeman DB Australian veterinary journal (2000)
[44]
Seroprevalence of Trypanosoma evansi in dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius) from the Canary Islands (Spain) using an antibody Ab-ELISA. — Molina JM, Ruiz A, Juste MC, Corbera JA, Amador R, Gutiérrez C Preventive veterinary medicine (1999)
[45]
Trypanosome non-specific IgM antibodies detected in serum of Trypanosoma congolense-infected cattle are polyreactive. — Buza J, Naessens J Veterinary immunology and immunopathology (1999)
[46]
Diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi in Saudi Arabian camels (Camelus dromedarius) by the passive haemagglutination test and Ag-ELISA. — Omer OH, Magzoub M, Haroun EM, Mahmoud OM, Abdel Hamid YM Zentralblatt fur Veterinarmedizin. Reihe B. Journal of veterinary medicine. Series B (1998)
[47]
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for detection of anti-Trypanosoma evansi equine antibodies. — Reyna-Bello A, García FA, Rivera M, Sansó B, Aso PM Veterinary parasitology (1998)
[48]
Effect of anti-immunoglobulin antibodies produced in cattle infected with Trypanosoma evansi on antigen detection ELISA. — Kashiwazaki Y, Thammasart S International journal for parasitology (1998)
[49]
Drug sensitivity of Trypanosoma evansi and the use of immunoassays in diagnosing infections with T. evansi in buffaloes in Vietnam. — Le NM, Wuyts N, Luckins AG, Nguyen AD, Nguyen TG Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences (1998)
[50]
Expression of acquired immunity to Heligmosomoides polygyrus in mice concurrently infected with Trypanosoma congolense. — Fakae BB, Harrison LJ, Ross CA, Sewell MM International journal for parasitology (1997)
[51]
Sensitivity of antigen ELISA test for detecting Trypanosoma evansi antigen in horses in the subtropical area of Argentina. — Monzón CM, Jara A, Nantulya VM The Journal of parasitology (1995)
[52]
Efficacy of Cymelarsan in Friesian Holstein calves infected with Trypanosoma evansi. — Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Partoutomo S, Jones TW, Luckins AG, Boid R Tropical animal health and production (1994)
[53]
Use of antigen capture tube enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in dromedary camels (Camelus dromedarius). — Waithanji EM, Nantulya VM, Mbiuki SM Revue scientifique et technique (International Office of Epizootics) (1993)
[54]
Effect of complement (C3) depletion on the generation of memory in rabbits primed with antigens of Trypanosoma evansi. — Uche UE, Jones TW Veterinary parasitology (1993)
[55]
A comparison of the antigen detection ELISA and parasite detection for diagnosis of Trypanosoma evansi infections in camels. — Waitumbi JN, Nantulya VM Veterinary parasitology (1993)
[56]
The effect of Trypanosoma evansi infection on the oestrous cycle of Friesian Holstein heifers. — Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Bazeley K, Jones TW Veterinary parasitology (1993)
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Experimental infection of Friesian Holstein calves with an Indonesian isolate of Trypanosoma evansi. — Payne RC, Sukanto IP, Partoutomo S, Polytedi F Tropical medicine and parasitology : official organ of Deutsche Tropenmedizinische Gesellschaft and of Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (1992)
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