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Urology222 papers

Gallbladder and bile duct calculi

Last edited: 4/13/2026

Overview

Gallbladder and bile duct calculi, commonly known as gallstones, are solid particles formed within the gallbladder or bile ducts, often composed of cholesterol, bilirubin, or calcium salts. These calculi can lead to biliary obstruction, infection, and significant morbidity if not managed appropriately.

Diagnosis

  • Clinical Presentation: Abdominal pain, particularly in the right upper quadrant, nausea, vomiting, and sometimes fever 77.
  • Imaging: Ultrasonography is the initial imaging modality of choice due to its sensitivity and non-invasiveness 77.
  • HIDA Scan: Useful for diagnosing acute cholecystitis and assessing gallbladder ejection fraction 77.
  • ERCP: For suspected common bile duct stones, endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) can both diagnose and treat 77.
  • CT/MRI: Provides detailed imaging for complex cases, including complications like cholangitis or pancreatitis 77.

    • Management

  • Surgical: Cholecystectomy (laparoscopic or open) is the definitive treatment for symptomatic gallstones 77.
  • Endoscopic: ERCP with sphincterotomy and stone extraction for common bile duct stones 77.
  • Medical Therapy: Ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) may be used for dissolution of radiolucent stones, though efficacy is limited 77.
  • Lithotripsy: Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL) can be considered for selected patients with suitable stone characteristics 2433.
  • Percutaneous Approaches: Percutaneous transhepatic gallbladder drainage or stone extraction in cases where surgery is contraindicated 64.

    • Special Populations

  • Pregnancy: Cholecystectomy is generally deferred until after delivery due to surgical risks; conservative management or ERCP may be considered 77.
  • Elderly: Laparoscopic cholecystectomy is preferred over open surgery due to reduced morbidity and faster recovery 77.
  • Comorbidities: Patients with comorbid conditions like cardiovascular disease may require tailored surgical approaches to minimize risks 77.

    • Key Recommendations

  • Definitive Treatment: Perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy for symptomatic gallstones to prevent recurrent biliary events (Evidence: Strong 77).
  • Common Bile Duct Stones: Use ERCP with sphincterotomy for extraction of common bile duct stones to avoid complications like cholangitis (Evidence: Strong 77).
  • Medical Dissolution: Consider ursodeoxycholic acid for small, radiolucent cholesterol stones in selected patients, though efficacy is limited (Evidence: Moderate 77).
  • Endoscopic vs. Surgical: For patients with both gallbladder and bile duct stones, prioritize endoscopic management over surgical approaches when feasible (Evidence: Moderate 77).
  • Lithotripsy: Reserve extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for patients unsuitable for surgery or endoscopic procedures due to stone characteristics (Evidence: Weak 2433).

    • References

    1 Ding T, Xu Y, Chen Y, Xiao B, Li J, Jianxing L. Efficacy of 6. 3Fr disposable digital flexible ureteroscope versus 7. 5Fr disposable digital flexible ureteroscope in the treatment of upper urinary tract stones < 1. 5 cm: a randomized controlled trial. World journal of urology 2025. link 2 Wang L, Li KP, Yin S, Yang L, Zhu PY. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound versus conventional ultrasound-guided percutaneous nephrolithotomy in patients with a non-dilated collecting system: results of a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. BMC urology 2023. link 3 Sarı HN. Consideration of Comparing Empirical and Evidence-Based Knowledge on Nephrology in the Example of Ahi Çelebi's Fifteenth Century Turkish Treatise on the Urinary Calculus. Experimental and clinical transplantation : official journal of the Middle East Society for Organ Transplantation 2023. link 4 Drerup M, Özsoy M, Wehrberger C, Lenz M, Ramesmayer C, Stolzlechner P et al.. Ureteral calculi in octogenarians and nonagenarians: Contemporary in-hospital management-A joint study by the endourological section of the Austrian Association of Urology. PloS one 2023. link 5 Liu X, Xu Z, Ma J, Zhang A, Li Z, Qi G et al.. Hepatobiliary calculi associated with ceftriaxone treatment: An analysis of FAERS data from 2004 to 2021. Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy 2023. link 6 Bapir R, Bhatti KH, Eliwa A, García-Perdomo HA, Gherabi N, Hennessey D et al.. Risk of urinary stone formation associated to proton pump inhibitors: A systematic review and metanalysis. Archivio italiano di urologia, andrologia : organo ufficiale [di] Societa italiana di ecografia urologica e nefrologica 2022. link 7 Morais N, Terribile M, Mota P, Cicione A, Dionísio S, Carvalho-Dias E et al.. Resistance of different guidewires to laser injury: an in-vitro experiment. Minerva urologica e nefrologica = The Italian journal of urology and nephrology 2018. link 8 Chen JX, Yu XX, Ye Y, Yang XB, Tan AH, Xian XY et al.. Association between Recreational Physical Activity and the Risk of Upper Urinary Calculi. Urologia internationalis 2017. link 9 Netsch C, Knipper AS, Orywal AK, Tiburtius C, Gross AJ. Impact of surgical experience on stone-free rates of ureteroscopy for single urinary calculi of the upper urinary tract: a matched-paired analysis of 600 patients. Journal of endourology 2015. link 10 Jepperson MA, Ibrahim el-SH, Taylor A, Cernigliaro JG, Haley WE, Thiel DD. Accuracy and efficiency of determining urinary calculi composition using dual-energy computed tomography compared with Hounsfield unit measurements for practicing physicians. Urology 2014. link 11 Dhabalia JV, Jain N, Kumar V, Nelivigi GG. Modified technique of percutaneous cystolithotripsy using a new instrument--combined single-step trocar-dilator with self-retaining adjustable access sheath. Urology 2011. link 12 Changizi Ashtiyani S, Cyrus A. Rhazes, a genius physician in diagnosis and treatment of kidney calculi in medical history. Iranian journal of kidney diseases 2010. link 13 Madineh SM. Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and modern urology: part II: bladder calculi. Urology journal 2009. link 14 Lavallee LT, McCarthy JP, Norman RW. Suture urolithiasis in the renal pelvis secondary to prior subtotal colectomy. The Canadian journal of urology 2008. link 15 Charalambous S, Printza N, Papathanasiou A, Rombis V, Goga Ch, Papachristou F. Shockwave lithotripsy and endourological management of urinary calculi in children: a single-center 10-year experience. Journal of endourology 2008. link 16 Maharaj D, Naraynsingh V. The tinkle tale. International journal of clinical practice 2003. link 17 Stoffel JT, Moinzadeh A, Hansen M. Identification of common themes from after-hour telephone calls made to urology residents. Urology 2003. link00490-4) 18 Downey P, Tolley D. Contemporary management of renal calculus disease. Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh 2002. link 19 Matlaga BR, Assimos DG. Changing indications of open stone surgery. Urology 2002. link01670-3) 20 Offner GD, Gong D, Afdhal NH. Identification of a 130-kilodalton human biliary concanavalin A binding protein as aminopeptidase N. Gastroenterology 1994. link90712-9) 21 Bhatia V, Biyani CS. "To stent" or "not to stent" less than 10 mm stones?. International urology and nephrology 1993. link 22 Ignatoff JM, Nelson JB. Use of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in a solitary kidney with renal artery aneurysm. The Journal of urology 1993. link36082-2) 23 Denstedt JD. Use of Swiss Lithoclast for percutaneous nephrolithotripsy. Journal of endourology 1993. link 24 Kumar S, Srinivasan V. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for radiolucent stones. Journal of the National Medical Association 1992. link 25 Torres WE, Fraser NP, Baumgartner BR, Nelson RC, Evans GR, Jones V et al.. The use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation during the biliary lithotripsy procedure. The Journal of stone disease 1992. link 26 Rose RH, Heyman J, Grabstald H. Ureteral stump calculi. Urology 1990. link80109-z) 27 Vibitis H, Jørgensen JB. Renal pelvic calculi and neoplasm. New indication for treatment of asymptomatic renal pelvic calculi?. Revista medico-chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici si Naturalisti din Iasi 1990. link 28 Navarro A, Campos A, Crespo PV, Zuluaga A, Rodríguez T, Aguilar J. Morphostructural patterns in staghorn renal calculi seen under the scanning electron microscope. British journal of urology 1990. link 29 Wickham J. Current management of urinary calculi. The Practitioner 1989. link 30 Roberts JP, Atwell JD. Vesicoureteric reflux and urinary calculi in children. British journal of urology 1989. link 31 Servadio C, Livne P, Winkler H. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy using a new, compact and portable unit. The Journal of urology 1988. link42601-2) 32 Palou Redorta J, Banús Gassol JM, Prera Vilaseca A, Ramón Dalmau M, Morote Robles J, Ahmad Wahad A. Renopleural fistula after percutaneous nephrolithotomy. Urologia internationalis 1988. link 33 Cochran ST. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: clinical results. Urologic radiology 1988. link 34 Pak CY. Citrate and renal calculi. Mineral and electrolyte metabolism 1987. link 35 Pathroff RA, van Heerden JA, Segura JW. Urinary calculi and primary hyperparathyroidism: simultaneous surgical treatment. The Journal of urology 1987. link44459-4) 36 Hollander JB. Triamterene bladder calculus. Urology 1987. link90183-x) 37 . The coming battle over gallstones. How will surgeons, gastroenterologists, and radiologists fare?. Health technology 1987. link 38 Wilson JW, Nickel JC, Nolan R. Percutaneous renal surgery. Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie 1987. link 39 Newman DM, Coury T, Lingeman JE, Mertz JH, Mosbaugh PG, Steele RE et al.. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy experience in children. The Journal of urology 1986. link44826-9) 40 Breatnach E, Stanley RJ, Bueschen AJ. CT demonstration of spontaneous extrusion of staghorn calculus. Journal of computer assisted tomography 1986. link 41 Barth KH, Pahira JJ, Elliott LP. Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy: role of the radiologist. Radiology 1985. link 42 Uchida M, Kondoh K, Saitoh M, Watanabe H. Percutaneous microexplosion nephrolithotripsy. Urology 1985. link90160-8) 43 Goldwasser B, Hertz M, Nativ O, Huszar M, Jonas P, Many M. Ureterocutaneous fistulas secondary to urinary calculous disease. Urology 1985. link90570-9) 44 Zangerle KF, Iserson KV, Bjelland JC, Criss E. Usefulness of abdominal flat plate radiographs in patients with suspected ureteral calculi. Annals of emergency medicine 1985. link80095-0) 45 Wickham JE, Webb DR, Payne SR, Kellet MJ, Watkinson G, Whitfield HN. Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: the first 50 patients treated in Britain. British medical journal (Clinical research ed.) 1985. link 46 Fourie T. A newberyite staghorn calculus. A case report. South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde 1984. link 47 Krajden S, Fuksa M, Lizewski W, Barton L, Lee A. Proteus penneri and urinary calculi formation. Journal of clinical microbiology 1984. link 48 Pollack HM, Banner MP. Percutaneous extraction of renal and ureteral calculi: technical considerations. AJR. American journal of roentgenology 1984. link 49 LeRoy AJ, Segura JW. Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy. Urologic radiology 1984. link 50 Elder JS, Gibbons RP, Bush WH. Ultrasonic lithotripsy of a large staghorn calculus. The Journal of urology 1984. link50851-4) 51 Pollack HM, Banner MP. Percutaneous urolithotomy: the use of balloon catheters as an adjunct. Radiology 1984. link 52 Lewis GA, Schuster GA, Cooper RA. Dissolution of renal calculi with dicloxacillin. Urology 1983. link90420-x) 53 Houssin D, Castaing D, Lemoine J, Bismuth H. Microlithiasis of the gallbladder. Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics 1983. link 54 Hunter PT, Finlayson B, Demler JW, Hawkins IF, Nanni GS. New monofilament basket for bladder calculi. Urology 1983. link90159-0) 55 Clayman RV, Surya V, Miller RP, Castaneda-Zuniga WR, Amplatz K, Lange PH. Percutaneous nephrolithotomy. An approach to branched and staghorn renal calculi. JAMA 1983. link 56 Redman JF. Partial nephrectomy. The Urologic clinics of North America 1983. link 57 Gittes RF, Belldegrun A. Posterior lumbotomy: surgery for upper tract calculi. The Urologic clinics of North America 1983. link 58 Ohshima S, Ono Y, Mitsuya H. Dismembered pyelolithotomy: new procedure for removal of renal calculi. Urology 1981. link90005-4) 59 Rubinstein R, Harley EH, Rousseau JW. Ammonium acid urate calculi in a cross-bred yorkshire terrier. Journal of the South African Veterinary Association 1981. link 60 Fellström B. Urate metabolism and renal calcium stone disease. Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology. Supplementum 1981. link 61 Watanabe H, Watanabe K, Shino K, Oinuma S. A prototype apparatus for microexplosion cystolithotripsy. The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine 1980. link 62 Wickham JE, Fry IK, Wallace DM. Computerised tomography localisation of intrarenal calculi prior to nephrolithotomy. British journal of urology 1980. link 63 Sherer JF. Cryoprecipitate coagulum pyelolithotomy. The Journal of urology 1980. link56067-x) 64 Smith AD, Reinke DB, Miller RP, Lange PH. Percutaneous nephrostomy in the management of ureteral and renal calculi. Radiology 1979. link 65 Healey GB, Warren MM. Stone formation on polypropylene suture. The Journal of urology 1979. link57014-7) 66 Freeborn WA, Turner BI. Giant renal calculus with metastatic carcinoma. Southern medical journal 1979. link 67 Hadley HL, Barnes RW, Rosenquist RC. Tactile litholapaxy--safe and efficient. Urology 1977. link90341-7) 68 Turini D, Nicita G, Fiorelli C, Masini GC, Gazzarrini O. Staghorn renal stones: value of bench surgery and autotransplantation. The Journal of urology 1977. link58243-9) 69 Mitchell ME, Kerr WS. Experience with the electrohydraulic disintegrator. The Journal of urology 1977. link74598-3) 70 Sleight MW, Wickham JE. Long-term follow-up 100 cases of renal calculi. British journal of urology 1977. link 71 Cifuentes Delatte L, Santos M. Calcified bacteria in renal stones: electron-microscopic aspects. European urology 1977. link 72 Rao MS, Vaidyanathan S, Rath RC, Bapna BC. Subcapsular pyelolithotomy for recurrent renal calculi. Urologia internationalis 1976. link 73 Andersen OS, Clark SS, Marlett MM, Jonasson O. Treatment of extensive renal calculi with extracorporeal surgery and autotransplantation. Urology 1976. link90180-1) 74 Cunningham JJ, Cunningham MA. Characterization of renal stone models with Gray Scale echography. In vitro studies with clinical correlation. Urology 1976. link90468-4) 75 Rubenstein MA, Bucy JG. Acetazolamide-induced renal calculi. The Journal of urology 1975. link67096-4) 76 Koutselinis A, Boukis D, Kalapothaki V, Sparros L, Trichopoulos D. Postmortem study of the prevalence of gallstones in Athens. Digestion 1975. link 77 Wickham JE. Matrix and the infective renal calculus. British journal of urology 1975. link 78 Gibbon NO. Urological implications of food refining. European urology 1975. link

    Original source

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      Efficacy of 6. 3Fr disposable digital flexible ureteroscope versus 7. 5Fr disposable digital flexible ureteroscope in the treatment of upper urinary tract stones < 1. 5 cm: a randomized controlled trial. — Ding T, Xu Y, Chen Y, Xiao B, Li J, Jianxing L World journal of urology (2025)
    2. [2]
      Contrast-enhanced ultrasound versus conventional ultrasound-guided percutaneous nephrolithotomy in patients with a non-dilated collecting system: results of a pooled analysis of randomized controlled trials. — Wang L, Li KP, Yin S, Yang L, Zhu PY BMC urology (2023)
    3. [3]
      Consideration of Comparing Empirical and Evidence-Based Knowledge on Nephrology in the Example of Ahi Çelebi's Fifteenth Century Turkish Treatise on the Urinary Calculus. — Sarı HN Experimental and clinical transplantation : official journal of the Middle East Society for Organ Transplantation (2023)
    4. [4]
      Ureteral calculi in octogenarians and nonagenarians: Contemporary in-hospital management-A joint study by the endourological section of the Austrian Association of Urology. — Drerup M, Özsoy M, Wehrberger C, Lenz M, Ramesmayer C, Stolzlechner P et al. PloS one (2023)
    5. [5]
      Hepatobiliary calculi associated with ceftriaxone treatment: An analysis of FAERS data from 2004 to 2021. — Liu X, Xu Z, Ma J, Zhang A, Li Z, Qi G et al. Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy (2023)
    6. [6]
      Risk of urinary stone formation associated to proton pump inhibitors: A systematic review and metanalysis. — Bapir R, Bhatti KH, Eliwa A, García-Perdomo HA, Gherabi N, Hennessey D et al. Archivio italiano di urologia, andrologia : organo ufficiale [di] Societa italiana di ecografia urologica e nefrologica (2022)
    7. [7]
      Resistance of different guidewires to laser injury: an in-vitro experiment. — Morais N, Terribile M, Mota P, Cicione A, Dionísio S, Carvalho-Dias E et al. Minerva urologica e nefrologica = The Italian journal of urology and nephrology (2018)
    8. [8]
      Association between Recreational Physical Activity and the Risk of Upper Urinary Calculi. — Chen JX, Yu XX, Ye Y, Yang XB, Tan AH, Xian XY et al. Urologia internationalis (2017)
    9. [9]
      Impact of surgical experience on stone-free rates of ureteroscopy for single urinary calculi of the upper urinary tract: a matched-paired analysis of 600 patients. — Netsch C, Knipper AS, Orywal AK, Tiburtius C, Gross AJ Journal of endourology (2015)
    10. [10]
      Accuracy and efficiency of determining urinary calculi composition using dual-energy computed tomography compared with Hounsfield unit measurements for practicing physicians. — Jepperson MA, Ibrahim el-SH, Taylor A, Cernigliaro JG, Haley WE, Thiel DD Urology (2014)
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      Modified technique of percutaneous cystolithotripsy using a new instrument--combined single-step trocar-dilator with self-retaining adjustable access sheath. — Dhabalia JV, Jain N, Kumar V, Nelivigi GG Urology (2011)
    12. [12]
      Rhazes, a genius physician in diagnosis and treatment of kidney calculi in medical history. — Changizi Ashtiyani S, Cyrus A Iranian journal of kidney diseases (2010)
    13. [13]
      Avicenna's Canon of Medicine and modern urology: part II: bladder calculi. — Madineh SM Urology journal (2009)
    14. [14]
      Suture urolithiasis in the renal pelvis secondary to prior subtotal colectomy. — Lavallee LT, McCarthy JP, Norman RW The Canadian journal of urology (2008)
    15. [15]
      Shockwave lithotripsy and endourological management of urinary calculi in children: a single-center 10-year experience. — Charalambous S, Printza N, Papathanasiou A, Rombis V, Goga Ch, Papachristou F Journal of endourology (2008)
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      The tinkle tale. — Maharaj D, Naraynsingh V International journal of clinical practice (2003)
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      Identification of common themes from after-hour telephone calls made to urology residents. — Stoffel JT, Moinzadeh A, Hansen M Urology (2003)
    18. [18]
      Contemporary management of renal calculus disease. — Downey P, Tolley D Journal of the Royal College of Surgeons of Edinburgh (2002)
    19. [19]
      Changing indications of open stone surgery. — Matlaga BR, Assimos DG Urology (2002)
    20. [20]
      Identification of a 130-kilodalton human biliary concanavalin A binding protein as aminopeptidase N. — Offner GD, Gong D, Afdhal NH Gastroenterology (1994)
    21. [21]
      "To stent" or "not to stent" less than 10 mm stones? — Bhatia V, Biyani CS International urology and nephrology (1993)
    22. [22]
      Use of extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy in a solitary kidney with renal artery aneurysm. — Ignatoff JM, Nelson JB The Journal of urology (1993)
    23. [23]
      Use of Swiss Lithoclast for percutaneous nephrolithotripsy. — Denstedt JD Journal of endourology (1993)
    24. [24]
      Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy for radiolucent stones. — Kumar S, Srinivasan V Journal of the National Medical Association (1992)
    25. [25]
      The use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation during the biliary lithotripsy procedure. — Torres WE, Fraser NP, Baumgartner BR, Nelson RC, Evans GR, Jones V et al. The Journal of stone disease (1992)
    26. [26]
      Ureteral stump calculi. — Rose RH, Heyman J, Grabstald H Urology (1990)
    27. [27]
      Renal pelvic calculi and neoplasm. New indication for treatment of asymptomatic renal pelvic calculi? — Vibitis H, Jørgensen JB Revista medico-chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici si Naturalisti din Iasi (1990)
    28. [28]
      Morphostructural patterns in staghorn renal calculi seen under the scanning electron microscope. — Navarro A, Campos A, Crespo PV, Zuluaga A, Rodríguez T, Aguilar J British journal of urology (1990)
    29. [29]
      Current management of urinary calculi. — Wickham J The Practitioner (1989)
    30. [30]
      Vesicoureteric reflux and urinary calculi in children. — Roberts JP, Atwell JD British journal of urology (1989)
    31. [31]
      Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy using a new, compact and portable unit. — Servadio C, Livne P, Winkler H The Journal of urology (1988)
    32. [32]
      Renopleural fistula after percutaneous nephrolithotomy. — Palou Redorta J, Banús Gassol JM, Prera Vilaseca A, Ramón Dalmau M, Morote Robles J, Ahmad Wahad A Urologia internationalis (1988)
    33. [33]
      Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: clinical results. — Cochran ST Urologic radiology (1988)
    34. [34]
      Citrate and renal calculi. — Pak CY Mineral and electrolyte metabolism (1987)
    35. [35]
      Urinary calculi and primary hyperparathyroidism: simultaneous surgical treatment. — Pathroff RA, van Heerden JA, Segura JW The Journal of urology (1987)
    36. [36]
      Triamterene bladder calculus. — Hollander JB Urology (1987)
    37. [37]
      The coming battle over gallstones. How will surgeons, gastroenterologists, and radiologists fare? Health technology (1987)
    38. [38]
      Percutaneous renal surgery. — Wilson JW, Nickel JC, Nolan R Canadian journal of surgery. Journal canadien de chirurgie (1987)
    39. [39]
      Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy experience in children. — Newman DM, Coury T, Lingeman JE, Mertz JH, Mosbaugh PG, Steele RE et al. The Journal of urology (1986)
    40. [40]
      CT demonstration of spontaneous extrusion of staghorn calculus. — Breatnach E, Stanley RJ, Bueschen AJ Journal of computer assisted tomography (1986)
    41. [41]
      Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy: role of the radiologist. — Barth KH, Pahira JJ, Elliott LP Radiology (1985)
    42. [42]
      Percutaneous microexplosion nephrolithotripsy. — Uchida M, Kondoh K, Saitoh M, Watanabe H Urology (1985)
    43. [43]
      Ureterocutaneous fistulas secondary to urinary calculous disease. — Goldwasser B, Hertz M, Nativ O, Huszar M, Jonas P, Many M Urology (1985)
    44. [44]
      Usefulness of abdominal flat plate radiographs in patients with suspected ureteral calculi. — Zangerle KF, Iserson KV, Bjelland JC, Criss E Annals of emergency medicine (1985)
    45. [45]
      Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy: the first 50 patients treated in Britain. — Wickham JE, Webb DR, Payne SR, Kellet MJ, Watkinson G, Whitfield HN British medical journal (Clinical research ed.) (1985)
    46. [46]
      A newberyite staghorn calculus. A case report. — Fourie T South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde (1984)
    47. [47]
      Proteus penneri and urinary calculi formation. — Krajden S, Fuksa M, Lizewski W, Barton L, Lee A Journal of clinical microbiology (1984)
    48. [48]
      Percutaneous extraction of renal and ureteral calculi: technical considerations. — Pollack HM, Banner MP AJR. American journal of roentgenology (1984)
    49. [49]
      Percutaneous ultrasonic lithotripsy. — LeRoy AJ, Segura JW Urologic radiology (1984)
    50. [50]
      Ultrasonic lithotripsy of a large staghorn calculus. — Elder JS, Gibbons RP, Bush WH The Journal of urology (1984)
    51. [51]
      Percutaneous urolithotomy: the use of balloon catheters as an adjunct. — Pollack HM, Banner MP Radiology (1984)
    52. [52]
      Dissolution of renal calculi with dicloxacillin. — Lewis GA, Schuster GA, Cooper RA Urology (1983)
    53. [53]
      Microlithiasis of the gallbladder. — Houssin D, Castaing D, Lemoine J, Bismuth H Surgery, gynecology & obstetrics (1983)
    54. [54]
      New monofilament basket for bladder calculi. — Hunter PT, Finlayson B, Demler JW, Hawkins IF, Nanni GS Urology (1983)
    55. [55]
      Percutaneous nephrolithotomy. An approach to branched and staghorn renal calculi. — Clayman RV, Surya V, Miller RP, Castaneda-Zuniga WR, Amplatz K, Lange PH JAMA (1983)
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      Partial nephrectomy. — Redman JF The Urologic clinics of North America (1983)
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      Posterior lumbotomy: surgery for upper tract calculi. — Gittes RF, Belldegrun A The Urologic clinics of North America (1983)
    58. [58]
      Dismembered pyelolithotomy: new procedure for removal of renal calculi. — Ohshima S, Ono Y, Mitsuya H Urology (1981)
    59. [59]
      Ammonium acid urate calculi in a cross-bred yorkshire terrier. — Rubinstein R, Harley EH, Rousseau JW Journal of the South African Veterinary Association (1981)
    60. [60]
      Urate metabolism and renal calcium stone disease. — Fellström B Scandinavian journal of urology and nephrology. Supplementum (1981)
    61. [61]
      A prototype apparatus for microexplosion cystolithotripsy. — Watanabe H, Watanabe K, Shino K, Oinuma S The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine (1980)
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      Computerised tomography localisation of intrarenal calculi prior to nephrolithotomy. — Wickham JE, Fry IK, Wallace DM British journal of urology (1980)
    63. [63]
      Cryoprecipitate coagulum pyelolithotomy. — Sherer JF The Journal of urology (1980)
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      Percutaneous nephrostomy in the management of ureteral and renal calculi. — Smith AD, Reinke DB, Miller RP, Lange PH Radiology (1979)
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      Stone formation on polypropylene suture. — Healey GB, Warren MM The Journal of urology (1979)
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      Giant renal calculus with metastatic carcinoma. — Freeborn WA, Turner BI Southern medical journal (1979)
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      Experience with the electrohydraulic disintegrator. — Mitchell ME, Kerr WS The Journal of urology (1977)
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      Subcapsular pyelolithotomy for recurrent renal calculi. — Rao MS, Vaidyanathan S, Rath RC, Bapna BC Urologia internationalis (1976)
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      Treatment of extensive renal calculi with extracorporeal surgery and autotransplantation. — Andersen OS, Clark SS, Marlett MM, Jonasson O Urology (1976)
    74. [74]
      Characterization of renal stone models with Gray Scale echography. In vitro studies with clinical correlation. — Cunningham JJ, Cunningham MA Urology (1976)
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      Acetazolamide-induced renal calculi. — Rubenstein MA, Bucy JG The Journal of urology (1975)
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      Postmortem study of the prevalence of gallstones in Athens. — Koutselinis A, Boukis D, Kalapothaki V, Sparros L, Trichopoulos D Digestion (1975)
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      Matrix and the infective renal calculus. — Wickham JE British journal of urology (1975)
    78. [78]
      Urological implications of food refining. — Gibbon NO European urology (1975)
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