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Cardiology538 papers

Cavernous hemangioma

Last edited: 4/23/2026

Overview

Cavernous hemangiomas are benign vascular tumors that can occur in various locations including the cavernous sinus, orbit, and skull. They are characterized by dilated blood vessels and can present with diverse clinical manifestations depending on their location.

Diagnosis

Imaging Studies: MRI and CT angiography are crucial for identifying cavernous hemangiomas, particularly in the cavernous sinus and orbit 3 33 53.

Endoscopic and Angiographic Techniques: Endoscopic approaches and angiography help in diagnosing and assessing fistulas like carotid-cavernous fistulas (CCFs) 1 15 21 30 51.

Ophthalmologic Evaluation: Essential for orbital lesions, including assessments of proptosis, extraocular muscle function, and visual acuity 4 11 12 23.

Management

Surgical Resection: Preferred for orbital cavernous hemangiomas (OCHs) and cavernous sinus hemangiomas (CSHs), though associated with risks 4 3 22.

Radiosurgery: Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) is effective for CSHs and orbital lesions, offering a minimally invasive approach 3 9 19 68.

Endovascular Techniques: Used for treating CCFs, including coil embolization and liquid embolic agents 13 14 20 50 60.

Manual Carotid Compression: Considered for low-flow indirect CCFs 18.

Flow Diversion: Emerging treatment for direct CCFs, though efficacy is still being evaluated 42.

Special Populations

Pediatrics: Specific considerations for surgical approaches and radiosurgery in pediatric patients with cavernous hemangiomas are noted 7 76.

Elderly: Parent artery occlusion in high-flow CCFs may impact long-term quality of life 6 66.

Comorbidities: Hypercoagulability is observed in patients with indirect CCFs, necessitating anticoagulation management 22.

Key Recommendations

Primary Treatment for Orbital Cavernous Hemangiomas: Surgical resection remains the first-line treatment due to its definitive nature, despite risks 4[Evidence: Moderate].

Radiosurgical Management for Cavernous Sinus Hemangiomas: Gamma Knife radiosurgery is recommended for CSHs due to its minimally invasive nature and efficacy 3[Evidence: Moderate].

Endovascular Embolization for Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas: Coil embolization is the mainstay treatment for CCFs, particularly indirect fistulas 13[Evidence: Strong].

Consider Radiosurgery for Low-Flow Indirect CCFs: In cases where endovascular options are limited, radiosurgery can be considered as an alternative 18[Evidence: Expert opinion].

Monitor Hypercoagulability in Indirect CCF Patients: Routine assessment and management of hypercoagulability are advised in patients with indirect CCFs 22[Evidence: Moderate].

References

Showing 100 most recent of 466 indexed papers.

1 Sebastian LJD, Agarwal S, Garg A, Singh PK, Sikka K. Endovascular management of life-threatening epistaxis from cavernous internal carotid artery lesions: an institutional experience. Clinical radiology 2026. link 2 Koh EJ, Park JS. Clinical outcome of Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) for indirect carotid-cavernous fistulas (CCFs). Medicine 2026. link 3 Akdemir EY, Zhang Y, Yomo S, Fariselli L, Gorgulho A, Levivier M et al.. Radiosurgical Management of Cavernous Sinus Hemangioma: Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and International Stereotactic Radiosurgery Society Practice Guideline. International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics 2026. link 4 Zoia C, Ricciuti V, Battaglia P, Bongetta D, Turri-Zanoni M, Giussani CG et al.. Endoscopic approaches for the treatment of orbital cavernous hemangiomas: a retrospective multicentric case series. Journal of neurosurgical sciences 2026. link 5 Fang J, Wang G, Song Y. Giant Carotid-Cavernous Fistula with Complete Shunt. World neurosurgery 2025. link 6 Esteves C, Berhanu D, Guerreiro C. Radiologic Clue to Cavernous Sinus Hemangioma Diagnosis. World neurosurgery 2025. link 7 Rose SE, Toong LY, Ghauth S, Ong DB. Right Parapharyngeal Cavernous Hemangioma, A Rare Entity: Case Report and Literature Review. Ear, nose, & throat journal 2025. link 8 Ou Y, Liang C, Chen Q, Gong J, Li M, Tang M et al.. Approaches for the Minimally Invasive Resection of Chiasmatic Cavernous Hemangioma: Analysis of 56 Cases in the Literature. World neurosurgery 2025. link 9 Punukollu A, Franklin B, Pineda FG, Wouters K, Palavani L, Pan DH et al.. Gamma knife radiosurgery for orbital cavernous hemangioma: a systematic review and single-arm meta-analysis. Journal of neuro-oncology 2024. link 10 Melchenko SA, Golodnev GE, Cherekaev VA, Sufianov AA, Gizatullin MR, Golbin DA et al.. Modified orbitozygomatic craniotomy with a single burr hole in the alternative sphenoid ridge keyhole. Neuro-Chirurgie 2024. link 11 Rana K, Lim WY, Caltabiano C, Tong JY, Chryssidis S, Scroop R et al.. Extraocular muscle enlargement and proptosis in carotid cavernous fistulas. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2024. link 12 Cohen DA, Sanchez Moreno FR, Bhatti MT, Lanzino G, Chen JJ. Evaluating the Incidence and Neuro-Ophthalmic Manifestations of Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas. Journal of neuro-ophthalmology : the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society 2024. link 13 Lee SH, Park H, Lee K, Hwang SH, Lee CH, Kang DH et al.. Venous outflow-targeted coil embolization of direct carotid-cavernous fistulas. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2023. link 14 Hoffman H, Ashok Kumar A, Wood JS, Mikhailova T, Yoo JH, Wakeman MB et al.. Outcomes After Endovascular Treatment of Direct Carotid Cavernous Fistulas: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. World neurosurgery 2023. link 15 Catapano JS, Srinivasan VM, De La Peña NM, Singh R, Cole TS, Wilkinson DA et al.. Direct puncture of the superior ophthalmic vein for carotid cavernous fistulas: a 21-year experience. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2023. link 16 Shaikh N, Leonard A, Patton C, Boo S, Nguyen J, Turner M. Endoscopic Endonasal Orbital Apex Decompression for Carotid Cavernous Fistula. Ear, nose, & throat journal 2023. link 17 Abaunza-Camacho JF, Vergara-Garcia D, Madrinan-Navia H, Riveros WM, Caballero A. Onyx Embolization of an Indirect Carotid-Cavernous Fistula with Cortical Venous Reflux: Technical Note. Journal of neurological surgery. Part A, Central European neurosurgery 2023. link 18 Koka K, Alam MS, Halbe S, Jaisankar D, Mukherjee B. Intermittent Manual Carotid Compression as a Treatment Option for Indirect Low Flow Carotid Cavernous Fistula. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2023. link 19 Chen YC, Tsai CC, Chen SJ, Wu HM, Yang HC, Chen CJ et al.. Stereotactic radiosurgery for orbital cavernous hemangiomas. Journal of neurosurgery 2023. link 20 Bolous Y, Bullock M, Clarke DB, Massoud E. Intraosseous Cavernous Hemangioma of the Middle Turbinate: A Case Report. Ear, nose, & throat journal 2023. link 21 Fong Ng BC, Kwan Mak CH, Chan NL, Lam CW, Yuen HK, Poon TL. Indocyanine Green-Assisted Endoscopic Transorbital Excision of Lateral Orbital Apex Cavernous Hemangioma. World neurosurgery 2022. link 22 Patel TJ, Zaslavsky K, Nicholson P, Margolin E. Hypercoagulability in patients with indirect carotid cavernous fistulas. Eye (London, England) 2022. link 23 Arat YO, İnam O, Yavas GF, Arat A. The role of choroidal optical coherence tomography for follow-up of carotid cavernous fistula with anterior drainage. Eye (London, England) 2022. link 24 Opitz M, Alatzides G, Zensen S, Bos D, Wetter A, Guberina N et al.. Radiation Exposure During Diagnostic and Therapeutic Angiography of Carotid-cavernous Fistula : A Retrospective Single Center Observational Study. Clinical neuroradiology 2022. link 25 Ho CYD, Yan B, Symons RCA, Hardy TG. PARACENTRAL ACUTE MIDDLE MACULOPATHY IN A CASE OF HIGH-FLOW DIRECT CAROTID CAVERNOUS FISTULA. Retinal cases & brief reports 2022. link 26 Arcuri F, Agostini T, Limbucci N, Laiso A, Mangiafico S, Spinelli G et al.. Salvage transorbital approach for the endovascular treatment of carotid cavernous fistulas. Oral and maxillofacial surgery 2022. link 27 Paddock M, Lanham S, Gill K, Sinha S, Connolly DJA. Pediatric Cerebral Cavernous Malformations. Pediatric neurology 2021. link 28 Bonasia S, De Trizio I, Valci L, Robert T. Sub-telo-velo-tonsillar approach to resect dorsal pons cavernoma through fourth ventricular floor opening: how I do it. Acta neurochirurgica 2021. link 29 Shimizu Y. Superficial middle temporal vein as a pivotal route to embolize dural carotid-cavernous fistulas. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2021. link 30 Salim S, Koka K, Halbe S, Nisar SP, Singh P, Mukherjee B. Superior ophthalmic vein thrombosis post manual carotid compression for indirect carotid-cavernous fistula. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2021. link 31 Ekeh L, Dermarkarian CR, Foroozan R, Bhatti MT. A shotgun wedding. Survey of ophthalmology 2021. link 32 Laplant JF, Lim LH, Dumont AS, Nerva JD. Transvenous embolization of bilateral indirect carotid-cavernous fistulas via a unilateral transorbital approach. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2021. link 33 Nagesh CP, Mohimen A, Kannath SK, Rajan JE. Republished: Primary intraventricular haemorrhage due to rupture of giant varix of the basal vein of Rosenthal in a patient with long-standing direct CCF: angiographic features and treatment considerations. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2020. link 34 McKerracher L, Shenkar R, Abbinanti M, Cao Y, Peiper A, Liao JK et al.. A Brain-Targeted Orally Available ROCK2 Inhibitor Benefits Mild and Aggressive Cavernous Angioma Disease. Translational stroke research 2020. link 35 Cossu G, Al-Taha K, Hajdu SD, Daniel RT, Messerer M. Carotid-Cavernous Fistula After Transsphenoidal Surgery: A Rare but Challenging Complication. World neurosurgery 2020. link 36 Dai RQ, Bai WX, Gao BL, Li TX, Zhang K. Internal carotid artery occlusion may affect long-term quality of life in patients with high-flow carotid cavernous fistulas. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2020. link 37 Benson JC, Rydberg C, DeLone DR, Johnson MP, Geske J, Brinjikji W et al.. CT angiogram findings in carotid-cavernous fistulas: stratification of imaging features to help radiologists avoid misdiagnosis. Acta radiologica (Stockholm, Sweden : 1987) 2020. link 38 Moro A, Wang T, Huang J, Feng W, Tang H, Liu Y et al.. Multiple Diffused Cavernous Hemangiomas Associated with Venous Calculi Formation in the Right Upper Limb and Back: A Case Report. Annals of vascular surgery 2020. link 39 Otiniano Sifuentes R, Vélez Rojas M, Flores Mendoza M, Torres Ramírez L, Solís Chucos F. Brainstem venous congestion due to a direct carotid-cavernous fistula: Case report. Neurocirugia 2020. link 40 Nakahara M, Uozumi Y, Chiba Y, Miyake S, Fujita A, Kohmura E. Direct Carotid Cavernous Fistula Due to Rupture of a Cavernous Carotid Aneurysm Embedded Within a Prolactinoma After Cabergoline Administration. World neurosurgery 2019. link 41 Grob SR, Wolkow N, Jakobiec FA, Lefebvre DR. Osseous cavernous hemangioma of the superior orbital rim. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) 2019. link 42 Hüseyinoglu Z, Oppong MD, Griffin AS, Hauck E. Treatment of direct carotid-cavernous fistulas with flow diversion - does it work?. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2019. link 43 Iampreechakul P, Tirakotai W, Tanpun A, Wattanasen Y, Lertbusayanukul P, Siriwimonmas S. Spontaneous resolution of direct carotid-cavernous fistulas: case series and literature review. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2019. link 44 Li J, Li Y, Li H. New Interpretation of Multimodality Fundus Imaging for Retinal Cavernous Hemangioma. Current eye research 2019. link 45 Hsu CC, Tsai SH, Wang JC, Kao HW, Hsu CW, Liu WH et al.. Swollen and bloodshot eye following headache. The American journal of emergency medicine 2019. link 46 Xu T, Yan Y, Wang H, Chen J. Transclinoid-Transcavernous Approach to a Giant Cavernous Sinus Hemangioma: 2-Dimensional Operative Video. World neurosurgery 2019. link 47 Lee AG, Shader JD, Vickers A, Diaz OM, Bilyk JR. Not the usual suspect. Survey of ophthalmology 2019. link 48 Liu LX, Lim J, Zhang CW, Lin S, Wu C, Wang T et al.. Application of the Willis Covered Stent in the Treatment of Carotid-Cavernous Fistula: A Single-Center Experience. World neurosurgery 2019. link 49 Fu ZW, Wang LX, Zhang ZY, Luo QF, Ge HY. Three-dimensional laparoscopy-assisted bowel resection for cavernous hemangioma of the rectum: Report of two cases. Asian journal of endoscopic surgery 2019. link 50 Alikhani P, Sivakanthan S, Ashour R, Tabor M, van Loveren H, Agazzi S. Endoscopic endonasal resection of a medullary cavernoma: a novel case. British journal of neurosurgery 2019. link 51 Castro-Afonso LH, Trivelato FP, Rezende MT, Ulhôa AC, Nakiri GS, Monsignore LM et al.. The routes for embolization of dural carotid cavernous fistulas when the endovascular approach is indicated as a first-line strategy. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2019. link 52 Li ZH, Wu Z, Zhang JT, Zhang LW. Surgical Management and Outcomes of Cavernous Sinus Hemangiomas: A Single-Institution Series of 47 Patients. World neurosurgery 2019. link 53 Gao C, Xu W, Qing Lian J, Feng D, Cui JF, Liu H. Spinal Epidural Cavernous Hemangioma: A Clinical Series of 7 Patients. World neurosurgery 2018. link 54 Oh JS, Kim DS, Shim JJ, Yoon SM. Surgical removal of embolic material after its unexpected migration through extracranial-intracranial anastomosis in the treatment of Barrow Type D carotid-cavernous fistula: case report. Journal of neurosurgery 2018. link 55 Seçer M, Ulutaş M, Alagöz F, Çınar K, Merzuk Uçkun Ö, Dağlıoğlu E. Cavernous hemangiomas of the third ventricle: Alternative surgical routes in two cases. Neurologia i neurochirurgia polska 2018. link 56 Henderson AD, Miller NR. Carotid-cavernous fistula: current concepts in aetiology, investigation, and management. Eye (London, England) 2018. link 57 Ryu HS, Moon KS, Lee KH, Kim IY, Jung S. Dural Penetration of Cavernous Hemangioma on Skull: Uncommon Clinical Presentation. World neurosurgery 2018. link 58 Rosenblum JS, Nazari M, Al-Khalili Y, Potigailo V, Veznedaroglu E. Unilateral Symptomatic Hypertrophic Olivary Degeneration Secondary to Midline Brainstem Cavernous Angioma: A Case Report and Review of the Literature. World neurosurgery 2018. link 59 Mahdjoubi A, Dendale R, Lumbroso-Le Rouic L, Desjardins L, Cassoux N. Retinal cavernous haemangioma treated by proton beam therapy. International ophthalmology 2018. link 60 de Castro-Afonso LH, Trivelato FP, Rezende MT, Ulhôa AC, Nakiri GS, Monsignore LM et al.. Transvenous embolization of dural carotid cavernous fistulas: the role of liquid embolic agents in association with coils on patient outcomes. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2018. link 61 Nagesh CP, Mohimen A, Kannath SK, Rajan JE. Primary intraventricular haemorrhage due to rupture of giant varix of the basal vein of Rosenthal in a patient with long-standing direct CCF: angiographic features and treatment considerations. BMJ case reports 2017. link 62 Feletti A, Dimitriadis S, Pavesi G. Cavernous Angioma of the Cerebral Aqueduct. World neurosurgery 2017. link 63 Lang M, Habboub G, Mullin JP, Rasmussen PA. A brief history of carotid-cavernous fistula. Journal of neurosurgery 2017. link 64 Botsford A, Shankar JJ. DSA-Dynavision in pretreatment planning for coil embolization of indirect carotid-cavernous fistula. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2017. link 65 Tang CL, Liao CH, Chen WH, Shen SC, Lee CH, Lee HT et al.. Endoscope-assisted transsphenoidal puncture of the cavernous sinus for embolization of carotid-cavernous fistula in a neurosurgical hybrid operating suite. Journal of neurosurgery 2017. link 66 Jagannatha AT, Srikantha U, Khanapure K, Joshi KC, Varma RG. Giant posterior fossa dural cavernoma in a child. Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery 2017. link 67 Ryu J, Chang S, Choi SK, Lee SH, Chung Y. Radial Artery Graft Bypass with Endovascular Trapping of the Internal Carotid Artery for Recurrent Carotid Cavernous Fistula: Different Surgical Fields, Different Surgical Considerations. World neurosurgery 2017. link 68 Lee CC, Sheehan JP, Kano H, Akpinar B, Martinez-Alvarez R, Martinez-Moreno N et al.. Gamma Knife radiosurgery for hemangioma of the cavernous sinus. Journal of neurosurgery 2017. link 69 Wajima D, Nakagawa I, Park HS, Yokoyama S, Wada T, Kichikawa K et al.. Successful Coil Embolization of Pediatric Carotid Cavernous Fistula Due to Ruptured Posttraumatic Giant Internal Carotid Artery Aneurysm. World neurosurgery 2017. link 70 Wang X, Liu JP, You C, Mao Q. Convexity dural cavernous haemangioma mimicking meningioma: A case report. British journal of neurosurgery 2016. link 71 Stéphan S, Blanc R, Zmuda M, Vignal C, Barral M, Pistocchi S et al.. Endovascular treatment of carotid-cavernous fistulae: Long-term efficacy and prognostic factors. Journal francais d'ophtalmologie 2016. link 72 Lenzi R, Bleier BS, Felisati G, Muscatello L. Purely endoscopic trans-nasal management of orbital intraconal cavernous haemangiomas: a systematic review of the literature. European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology : official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS) : affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery 2016. link 73 Lee JY, Jung C, Ihn YK, Kim DJ, Seong SO, Kwon BJ. Multidetector CT angiography in the diagnosis and classification of carotid-cavernous fistula. Clinical radiology 2016. link 74 Ono K, Oishi H, Tanoue S, Hasegawa H, Yoshida K, Yamamoto M et al.. Direct carotid-cavernous fistulas occurring during neurointerventional procedures. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2016. link 75 Zhu WD, Huang Q, Li XY, Chen HS, Wang ZY, Wu H. Diagnosis and treatment of cavernous hemangioma of the internal auditory canal. Journal of neurosurgery 2016. link 76 Niu Y, Li L, Tang J, Zhu G, Chen Z. Embolization of direct carotid cavernous fistulas with the novel double-balloon technique. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2016. link 77 Odat H, Al-Qudah M, Al-Qudah MA. Cavernous Hemangioma of the External Canal, Tympanic Membrane, and Middle Ear Cleft: A Case Report. Head and neck pathology 2016. link 78 Mandonnet E, Dadoun Y, Poisson I, Madadaki C, Froelich S, Lozeron P. Axono-cortical evoked potentials: A proof-of-concept study. Neuro-Chirurgie 2016. link 79 Bleier BS, Castelnuovo P, Battaglia P, Turri-Zanoni M, Dallan I, Metson R et al.. Endoscopic endonasal orbital cavernous hemangioma resection: global experience in techniques and outcomes. International forum of allergy & rhinology 2016. link 80 Tsuji K, Nakagawa N, Fukawa N, Nagatsuka K, Nakano N, Kato A. A novel technique for identifying the fistulous point in a direct carotid-cavernous fistula. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2016. link 81 Nakagawa I, Park HS, Wada T, Takayama K, Nakagawa H, Kichikawa K et al.. A novel approach to the treatment of a direct carotid-cavernous fistula in a patient with Ehlers-Danlos syndrome type IV. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2016. link 82 Park CK, Choi SK, Kang IH, Choi MK, Park BJ, Lim YJ. Radiosurgical considerations for cavernous sinus hemangioma: long-term clinical outcomes. Acta neurochirurgica 2016. link 83 Venturini M, Cristel G, Marzoli SB, Simionato F, Agostini G, Barboni P et al.. Orbital color Doppler ultrasound as noninvasive tool in the diagnosis of anterior-draining carotid-cavernous fistula. La Radiologia medica 2016. link 84 Klevtsova E, Nguyen-Min C, Lalani T, Carlan SJ, Madruga M. Posttraumatic carotid cavernous fistula that presented as seizure and focal neurological deficits with symptom resolution after therapeutic coil embolization. The Journal of emergency medicine 2015. link 85 Seeger A, Kramer U, Bischof F, Schuettauf F, Ebner F, Danz S et al.. Feasibility of Noninvasive Diagnosis and Treatment Planning in a Case Series with Carotid-Cavernous Fistula using High-Resolution Time-Resolved MR-Angiography with Stochastic Trajectories (TWIST) and Extended Parallel Acquisition Technique (ePAT 6) at 3 T. Clinical neuroradiology 2015. link 86 Lin LM, Colby GP, Jiang B, Pero G, Boccardi E, Coon AL. Transvenous approach for the treatment of direct carotid cavernous fistula following Pipeline embolization of cavernous carotid aneurysm: a report of two cases and review of the literature. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2015. link 87 Shikada Y, Katsura M, Kouso H, Shoji F, Ushijima C, Takeo S. A case of middle mediastinal cavernous hemangioma. General thoracic and cardiovascular surgery 2015. link 88 Campero A, Ajler P, Garategui L, Goldschmidt E, Martins C, Rhoton A. Pterional transsylvian-transinsular approach in three cavernomas of the left anterior mesiotemporal region. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery 2015. link 89 Barber SM, Rangel-Castilla L, Zhang YJ, Klucznik R, Diaz O. Mid- and long-term outcomes of carotid-cavernous fistula endovascular management with Onyx and n-BCA: experience of a single tertiary center. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2015. link 90 Bansal S, Suri A, Singh M, Kale SS, Agarwal D, Sharma MS et al.. Cavernous sinus hemangioma: a fourteen year single institution experience. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2014. link 91 Alaraj A, Kim B, Oh G, Aletich V. Blind endovascular catheterization and direct access of an occluded superior ophthalmic vein for treatment of carotid cavernous fistula. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2014. link 92 Sobin L, Jones K, Tatum S. Spontaneous carotid-cavernous fistula: challenges in clinical and radiologic diagnosis. The American journal of emergency medicine 2014. link 93 Chiu AH, Phatouros CC. De novo cavernoma developing from an asymptomatic thalamic microhemorrhage. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2014. link 94 Takeshima Y, Marutani A, Tamura K, Park YS, Nakase H. A case of cauda equina cavernous angioma coexisting with multiple cerebral cavernous angiomas. British journal of neurosurgery 2014. link 95 Thiex R, Gross BA, Gupta R, Wyers MC, Frerichs KU, Thomas AJ. Transvenous approach to carotid-cavernous fistula via facial vein cut down. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2014. link 96 Yu Y, Li Q, Huang Q, Zhang Y, Fang Y, Xu Y et al.. Embolization of direct carotid cavernous fistula with Onyx and coils under transarterial balloon protection. Cardiovascular and interventional radiology 2014. link 97 Carneiro JT, Paschoal EH, Carreira AS, Real RP. Carotid cavernous fistula after surgically assisted rapid maxillary expansion with a bone anchored appliance. International journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery 2013. link 98 Luo CB, Teng MM, Chang FC, Lin CJ, Guo WY, Chang CY. Transarterial detachable coil embolization of direct carotid-cavernous fistula: immediate and long-term outcomes. Journal of the Chinese Medical Association : JCMA 2013. link 99 Yin YH, Yu XG, Xu BN, Zhou DB, Bu B, Chen XL. Surgical management of large and giant cavernous sinus hemangiomas. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2013. link 100 Slotty PJ, Ewelt C, Sarikaya-Seiwert S, Steiger HJ, Vesper J, Hänggi D. Localization techniques in resection of deep seated cavernous angiomas - review and reevaluation of frame based stereotactic approaches. British journal of neurosurgery 2013. link

Original source

[1]
Endovascular management of life-threatening epistaxis from cavernous internal carotid artery lesions: an institutional experience. — Sebastian LJD, Agarwal S, Garg A, Singh PK, Sikka K Clinical radiology (2026)
[2]
Clinical outcome of Gamma Knife radiosurgery (GKRS) for indirect carotid-cavernous fistulas (CCFs). — Koh EJ, Park JS Medicine (2026)
[3]
Radiosurgical Management of Cavernous Sinus Hemangioma: Systematic Review, Meta-analysis, and International Stereotactic Radiosurgery Society Practice Guideline. — Akdemir EY, Zhang Y, Yomo S, Fariselli L, Gorgulho A, Levivier M et al. International journal of radiation oncology, biology, physics (2026)
[4]
Endoscopic approaches for the treatment of orbital cavernous hemangiomas: a retrospective multicentric case series. — Zoia C, Ricciuti V, Battaglia P, Bongetta D, Turri-Zanoni M, Giussani CG et al. Journal of neurosurgical sciences (2026)
[5]
Giant Carotid-Cavernous Fistula with Complete Shunt. — Fang J, Wang G, Song Y World neurosurgery (2025)
[6]
Radiologic Clue to Cavernous Sinus Hemangioma Diagnosis. — Esteves C, Berhanu D, Guerreiro C World neurosurgery (2025)
[7]
Right Parapharyngeal Cavernous Hemangioma, A Rare Entity: Case Report and Literature Review. — Rose SE, Toong LY, Ghauth S, Ong DB Ear, nose, & throat journal (2025)
[8]
Approaches for the Minimally Invasive Resection of Chiasmatic Cavernous Hemangioma: Analysis of 56 Cases in the Literature. — Ou Y, Liang C, Chen Q, Gong J, Li M, Tang M et al. World neurosurgery (2025)
[9]
Gamma knife radiosurgery for orbital cavernous hemangioma: a systematic review and single-arm meta-analysis. — Punukollu A, Franklin B, Pineda FG, Wouters K, Palavani L, Pan DH et al. Journal of neuro-oncology (2024)
[10]
Modified orbitozygomatic craniotomy with a single burr hole in the alternative sphenoid ridge keyhole. — Melchenko SA, Golodnev GE, Cherekaev VA, Sufianov AA, Gizatullin MR, Golbin DA et al. Neuro-Chirurgie (2024)
[11]
Extraocular muscle enlargement and proptosis in carotid cavernous fistulas. — Rana K, Lim WY, Caltabiano C, Tong JY, Chryssidis S, Scroop R et al. Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2024)
[12]
Evaluating the Incidence and Neuro-Ophthalmic Manifestations of Carotid-Cavernous Fistulas. — Cohen DA, Sanchez Moreno FR, Bhatti MT, Lanzino G, Chen JJ Journal of neuro-ophthalmology : the official journal of the North American Neuro-Ophthalmology Society (2024)
[13]
Venous outflow-targeted coil embolization of direct carotid-cavernous fistulas. — Lee SH, Park H, Lee K, Hwang SH, Lee CH, Kang DH et al. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences (2023)
[14]
Outcomes After Endovascular Treatment of Direct Carotid Cavernous Fistulas: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. — Hoffman H, Ashok Kumar A, Wood JS, Mikhailova T, Yoo JH, Wakeman MB et al. World neurosurgery (2023)
[15]
Direct puncture of the superior ophthalmic vein for carotid cavernous fistulas: a 21-year experience. — Catapano JS, Srinivasan VM, De La Peña NM, Singh R, Cole TS, Wilkinson DA et al. Journal of neurointerventional surgery (2023)
[16]
Endoscopic Endonasal Orbital Apex Decompression for Carotid Cavernous Fistula. — Shaikh N, Leonard A, Patton C, Boo S, Nguyen J, Turner M Ear, nose, & throat journal (2023)
[17]
Onyx Embolization of an Indirect Carotid-Cavernous Fistula with Cortical Venous Reflux: Technical Note. — Abaunza-Camacho JF, Vergara-Garcia D, Madrinan-Navia H, Riveros WM, Caballero A Journal of neurological surgery. Part A, Central European neurosurgery (2023)
[18]
Intermittent Manual Carotid Compression as a Treatment Option for Indirect Low Flow Carotid Cavernous Fistula. — Koka K, Alam MS, Halbe S, Jaisankar D, Mukherjee B Orbit (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2023)
[19]
Stereotactic radiosurgery for orbital cavernous hemangiomas. — Chen YC, Tsai CC, Chen SJ, Wu HM, Yang HC, Chen CJ et al. Journal of neurosurgery (2023)
[20]
Intraosseous Cavernous Hemangioma of the Middle Turbinate: A Case Report. — Bolous Y, Bullock M, Clarke DB, Massoud E Ear, nose, & throat journal (2023)
[21]
Indocyanine Green-Assisted Endoscopic Transorbital Excision of Lateral Orbital Apex Cavernous Hemangioma. — Fong Ng BC, Kwan Mak CH, Chan NL, Lam CW, Yuen HK, Poon TL World neurosurgery (2022)
[22]
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[23]
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