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Anesthesiology267 papers

Delirium caused by psychoactive substance

Last edited: 4/23/2026

Overview

Delirium caused by psychoactive substances involves acute changes in mental status characterized by confusion, altered consciousness, and perceptual disturbances, often precipitated by drug intoxication or withdrawal. 15 17

Diagnosis

Clinical assessment focusing on acute onset of confusion and altered mental status.

History of substance use or exposure to psychoactive substances.

Exclusion of other causes of delirium through physical examination and laboratory tests (e.g., blood tests, toxicology screens). 15 17

Management

Withdrawal Management: Gradual reduction of the substance under medical supervision. 15

Supportive Care: Ensuring a safe environment, hydration, and addressing underlying medical conditions.

Pharmacological Interventions:

- Antipsychotics: For severe agitation or psychosis (e.g., haloperidol, risperidone) 15. - Benzodiazepines: For acute withdrawal symptoms (e.g., diazepam) 15.

Monitoring: Continuous monitoring of vital signs and level of consciousness. 15

Special Populations

Pediatrics: Increased vigilance due to developmental differences; careful titration of sedatives and antipsychotics. 15

Elderly: Higher risk of complications; careful assessment of comorbidities and polypharmacy effects. 15

Comorbidities: Consideration of substance interactions with existing medications; tailored management plans. 15

Key Recommendations

Conduct a thorough history and toxicology screening to confirm substance-induced delirium. (Evidence: Moderate 15)

Implement supportive care measures including environmental safety and hydration. (Evidence: Expert opinion 17)

Use antipsychotics cautiously for severe agitation, considering individual patient factors. (Evidence: Moderate 15)

Monitor vital signs and level of consciousness closely during treatment. (Evidence: Expert opinion 17)

Tailor management plans for special populations like pediatric and elderly patients, accounting for unique vulnerabilities. (Evidence: Expert opinion 15)

References

Showing 100 most recent of 198 indexed papers.

1 Tu Z, Jeffries SD, Morse J, Hemmerling TM. Comparison of time-series models for predicting physiological metrics under sedation. Journal of clinical monitoring and computing 2025. link 2 Pinho RH, Reed M, Chapman K, Pang DSJ. Use of 2 sedation protocols to successfully validate a sedation assessment scale in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). American journal of veterinary research 2025. link 3 Mascarenhas C, Castro D, Lascola KM, Hofmeister E, Clark-Price SC. The effect of intramuscular atipamezole on head height and sedation scores in detomidine-sedated horses. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2025. link 4 Hollmann VC, Darwood ARJ, Sarai PS, Strutton PH, Harrop-Griffiths W, Mullington CJ. Psychomotor Responses to Independent Visual, Auditory and Tactile Electrical stimuli during Sevoflurane sedation (PRIVATES). British journal of anaesthesia 2025. link 5 Pinho RH, Reed M, Chapman K, Pang DS. Comparison of intramuscular medetomidine versus medetomidine-vatinoxan sedation in bearded dragons (Pogonavitticeps). Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2025. link 6 Lindh E, Meller A, Alm K, Finckenberg P, Raekallio M, Honkavaara J. Peripheral alpha 2-adrenergic antagonist vatinoxan improves the quality of medetomidine-midazolam sedation in Wistar rats. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2025. link 7 Morris R, Kuppa SA, Zhu X, Bu K, Han W, Cheng F. The Association Between Dexmedetomidine and Bradycardia: An Analysis of FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) Data and Transcriptomic Profiles. Genes 2025. link 8 Kim SH, Moon YJ, Chae MS, Lee YJ, Karm MH, Joo EY et al.. Korean clinical practice guidelines for diagnostic and procedural sedation. Korean journal of anesthesiology 2024. link 9 Bae MI, Bae J, Song Y, Kim M, Han DW. Comparative Analysis of the Performance of Electroencephalogram Parameters for Monitoring the Depth of Sedation During Remimazolam Target-Controlled Infusion. Anesthesia and analgesia 2024. link 10 Zheng Y, Xiong B, Sang A, Liu X, Li X, Song X. Bispectral Index versus the University of Michigan Sedation Scale in assessing sedation depth during pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy. Sleep & breathing = Schlaf & Atmung 2024. link 11 Cuypers C, Alonso B, Devreese M, Schauvliege S. Dose titration of intravenously administered gamma-hydroxybutyric acid for sedation in Holstein-Friesian calves. Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997) 2024. link 12 Turner AJF, Wehrman J, Sanders RD. Similarities in consciousness occurring during sleep and sedation. British journal of anaesthesia 2023. link 13 Hara T, Ozawa A, Shibutani K, Tsujino K, Miyauchi Y, Kawano T et al.. Practical guide for safe sedation. Journal of anesthesia 2023. link 14 Kim PJ, Kim HT, Choi B, Shin TJ. Graph approaches for analysis of brain connectivity during dexmedetomidine sedation. Neuroscience letters 2023. link 15 Gangwani P, Lillian D, Dobbins J, Feng C, Vorrasi J, Kolokythas A. Is Recreational Marijuana Use Associated With Changes in the Vital Signs or Anesthetic Requirements During Intravenous Sedation?. Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons 2023. link 16 Guay CS, Hight D, Gupta G, Kafashan M, Luong AH, Avidan MS et al.. Breathe-squeeze: pharmacodynamics of a stimulus-free behavioural paradigm to track conscious states during sedation. British journal of anaesthesia 2023. link 17 Cerezo Ruiz A. Importance of assessing for cannabis use prior to propofol sedation for endoscopy. Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas 2021. link 18 Ramaswamy SM, Weerink MAS, Struys MMRF, Nagaraj SB. Dexmedetomidine-induced deep sedation mimics non-rapid eye movement stage 3 sleep: large-scale validation using machine learning. Sleep 2021. link 19 Garbe J, Eisenmann S, Kantelhardt JW, Duenninghaus F, Michl P, Rosendahl J. Capability of processed EEG parameters to monitor conscious sedation in endoscopy is similar to general anaesthesia. United European gastroenterology journal 2021. link 20 Jang YE, Ji SH, Lee JH, Kim EH, Kim JT, Kim HS. The relationship between the effect-site concentration of propofol and sedation scale in children: a pharmacodynamic modeling study. BMC anesthesiology 2021. link 21 Saxena N, Muthukumaraswamy SD, Richmond L, Babic A, Singh KD, Hall JE et al.. A comparison of GABA-ergic (propofol) and non-GABA-ergic (dexmedetomidine) sedation on visual and motor cortical oscillations, using magnetoencephalography. NeuroImage 2021. link 22 de Oliveira AR, Gozalo-Marcilla M, Ringer SK, Schauvliege S, Fonseca MW, Esteves Trindade PH et al.. Development and validation of the facial scale (FaceSed) to evaluate sedation in horses. PloS one 2021. link 23 Wang F, Zhou Q, Shen M, Quan J, Chen J, Shi J et al.. Efficacy and safety of remimazolam in procedural sedation and analgesia: A protocol for systematic review and meta analysis. Medicine 2020. link 24 Yaw TJ, Mans C, Johnson S, Bunke L, Doss GA, Sladky KK. Evaluation of subcutaneous administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons . Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 2020. link 25 Teng WN, Su BC, Cheng HW. Innovation in sedation and analgesia training. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2019. link 26 Kim PJ, Kim HG, Shin TJ. The disturbance in dynamic property in the reconstructed state space during nitrous oxide administration. Neuroreport 2019. link 27 Frigerio MA, Gómez Cisneros D, Santiago Llorente I, Manso-Díaz G, López-Sanromán J. A kinematic comparison of the locomotor pattern of horses sedated with detomidine alone and in combination with low doses of butorphanol. Equine veterinary journal 2019. link 28 Schauvliege S, Cuypers C, Michielsen A, Gasthuys F, Gozalo-Marcilla M. How to score sedation and adjust the administration rate of sedatives in horses: a literature review and introduction of the Ghent Sedation Algorithm. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2019. link 29 Nir T, Or-Borichev A, Izraitel E, Hendler T, Lerner Y, Matot I. Transient subcortical functional connectivity upon emergence from propofol sedation in human male volunteers: evidence for active emergence. British journal of anaesthesia 2019. link 30 McCarroll MN, Gendelev L, Kinser R, Taylor J, Bruni G, Myers-Turnbull D et al.. Zebrafish behavioural profiling identifies GABA and serotonin receptor ligands related to sedation and paradoxical excitation. Nature communications 2019. link 31 Bakry M, Bakry R. Changes in topographic electroencephalogram during deepening levels of propofol sedation based on alertness/sedation scale under bispectral index guidance. Anaesthesiology intensive therapy 2019. link 32 Zhang H, Lu Y, Wang L, Lv J, Ma Y, Wang W et al.. Bispectral index monitoring of sedation depth during endoscopy: a meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. Minerva anestesiologica 2019. link 33 Baron Shahaf D, Hare GMT, Baker AJ, Chenosia V, Priven L, Mistry N et al.. A New Index of Coordinated Posterior and Anterior Evoked EEG to Detect Recall Under Sedation - A Pilot Study. Scientific reports 2019. link 34 Kang D, Lim C, Shim DJ, Kim H, Kim JW, Chung HJ et al.. The correlation of heart rate between natural sleep and dexmedetomidine sedation. Korean journal of anesthesiology 2019. link 35 Sear JW. Challenges of bringing a new sedative to market!. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2018. link 36 Koers L, Eberl S, Cappon A, Bouwman A, Schlack W, Hermanides J et al.. Safety of moderate-to-deep sedation performed by sedation practitioners: A national prospective observational study. European journal of anaesthesiology 2018. link 37 Xi C, Sun S, Pan C, Ji F, Cui X, Li T. Different effects of propofol and dexmedetomidine sedation on electroencephalogram patterns: Wakefulness, moderate sedation, deep sedation and recovery. PloS one 2018. link 38 Sleigh JW, Vacas S, Flexman AM, Talke PO. Electroencephalographic Arousal Patterns Under Dexmedetomidine Sedation. Anesthesia and analgesia 2018. link 39 Friedman N, Sagi D, Ziv A, Shavit I. Pediatric residents' simulation-based training in patient safety during sedation. European journal of pediatrics 2018. link 40 Kicker JS, Hill HS, Matheson CK. Better Pairing Propofol Volume With Procedural Needs: A Propofol Waste Reduction Quality Improvement Project. Hospital pediatrics 2018. link 41 Youngblood BL, Ueyama Y, Muir WW, Belfort GM, Hammond RH, Dai J et al.. A new method for determining levels of sedation in dogs: A pilot study with propofol and a novel neuroactive steroid anesthetic. Journal of neuroscience methods 2018. link 42 Swindle J. Coding for Conscious Sedation. Revenue-cycle strategist 2017. link 43 Rathee D, Cecotti H, Prasad G. Propofol-induced sedation diminishes the strength of frontal-parietal-occipital EEG network. Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society. Annual International Conference 2017. link 44 Müller JN, Kreuzer M, García PS, Schneider G, Hautmann H. Monitoring depth of sedation: evaluating the agreement between the Bispectral Index, qCON and the Entropy Module's State Entropy during flexible bronchoscopy. Minerva anestesiologica 2017. link 45 Brady PJ, Hayes M, McCreary CE, O'Halloran KD, Giovannitti JA. What’s new in... Capnography Monitoring for Dental Conscious Sedation: A Clinical Review. SAAD digest 2017. link 46 Dumonceau JM. Will societies of anesthesiologists partake in the take-off of non-anesthesiologist administration of propofol?. Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas 2017. link 47 Colin PJ, Hannivoort LN, Eleveld DJ, Reyntjens KMEM, Absalom AR, Vereecke HEM et al.. Dexmedetomidine pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic modelling in healthy volunteers: 1. Influence of arousal on bispectral index and sedation. British journal of anaesthesia 2017. link 48 Doss GA, Fink DM, Sladky KK, Mans C. Comparison of subcutaneous dexmedetomidine-midazolam versus alfaxalone-midazolam sedation in leopard geckos (Eublepharis macularius). Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2017. link 49 Arnal Velasco D, Romero García E, Martínez Palli G, Muñoz Corsini L, Rey Martínez M, Postigo Morales S. Patient safety recommendations for out of operating room procedure sedation. Revista espanola de anestesiologia y reanimacion 2016. link 50 Fehr JJ, Chao J, Kuan C, Zhong J. The important role of simulation in sedation. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2016. link 51 Maeda S, Tomoyasu Y, Higuchi H, Honda Y, Ishii-Maruhama M, Miyawaki T. Female Patients Require a Higher Propofol Infusion Rate for Sedation. Anesthesia progress 2016. link 52 Sawaguchi K, Matsuura N, Ichinohe T. Comparison of the Effect of Electrical Stimulations on the Chin Skin on Autonomic Nervous Activities During Propofol Sedation With or Without Midazolam. Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons 2016. link 53 Singh PM, Borle A, Goudra BG. Use of computer-assisted drug therapy outside the operating room. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2016. link 54 Bertrand HG, Ellen YC, O'Keefe S, Flecknell PA. Comparison of the effects of ketamine and fentanyl-midazolam-medetomidine for sedation of rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). BMC veterinary research 2016. link 55 Deshpande D, Hill KE, Mealey KL, Chambers JP, Gieseg MA. The Effect of the Canine ABCB1-1Δ Mutation on Sedation after Intravenous Administration of Acepromazine. Journal of veterinary internal medicine 2016. link 56 Hornak S, Liptak T, Ledecky V, Hromada R, Bilek J, Mazensky D et al.. A preliminary trial of the sedation induced by intranasal administration of midazolam alone or in combination with dexmedetomidine and reversal by atipamezole for a short-term immobilization in pigeons. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2015. link 57 Rivera B. The Current Status of Nurse-Administered Propofol Sedation in Endoscopy: An Evidence-Based Practice Nurse Fellowship Project. Gastroenterology nursing : the official journal of the Society of Gastroenterology Nurses and Associates 2015. link 58 Ogawa Y, Iwasaki K, Aoki K, Yanagida R, Ueda K, Kato J et al.. The Effects of Flumazenil After Midazolam Sedation on Cerebral Blood Flow and Dynamic Cerebral Autoregulation in Healthy Young Males. Journal of neurosurgical anesthesiology 2015. link 59 Liang P, Zhang H, Xu Y, Jia W, Zang Y, Li K. Disruption of cortical integration during midazolam-induced light sedation. Human brain mapping 2015. link 60 Komasawa N, Fujiwara S, Atagi K, Ueki R, Haba M, Ueshima H et al.. Effects of a simulation-based sedation training course on non-anesthesiologists' attitudes toward sedation and analgesia. Journal of anesthesia 2014. link 61 van Loon K, van Rheineck Leyssius AT, van Zaane B, Denteneer M, Kalkman CJ. Capnography during deep sedation with propofol by nonanesthesiologists: a randomized controlled trial. Anesthesia and analgesia 2014. link 62 Goyal A, Mittal N, Mittal P, Gauba K. Bispectral Index Monitoring: validity and utility in pediatric dentistry. The Journal of clinical pediatric dentistry 2014. link 63 Sheahan CG, Mathews DM. Monitoring and delivery of sedation. British journal of anaesthesia 2014. link 64 Santonastaso A, Hardy J, Cohen N, Fajt V. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of xylazine administered by the intravenous or intra-osseous route in adult horses. Journal of veterinary pharmacology and therapeutics 2014. link 65 Taylor P, Coumbe K, Henson F, Scott D, Taylor A. Evaluation of sedation for standing clinical procedures in horses using detomidine combined with buprenorphine. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2014. link 66 Walker P. An audit of the sedation activity of participants following their attendance on SAAD conscious sedation courses. SAAD digest 2013. link 67 Newton T, Pop I, Duvall E. Sedation scales and measures--a literature review. SAAD digest 2013. link 68 Allam S, Anderson KJ, O'Brien C, Macpherson JA, Gambhir S, Leitch JA et al.. Patient-maintained propofol sedation using reaction time monitoring: a volunteer safety study. Anaesthesia 2013. link 69 Zapata M, Hofmeister EH. Refinement of the dose of doxapram to counteract the sedative effects of acepromazine in dogs. The Journal of small animal practice 2013. link 70 Becker DE. Pharmacodynamic considerations for moderate and deep sedation. Anesthesia progress 2012. link 71 Huang MY, Matsuura N, Kaneko Y, Ichinohe T. Midazolam increases bite force during intravenous sedation. Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons 2012. link 72 Ringer SK, Portier KG, Fourel I, Bettschart-Wolfensberger R. Development of a romifidine constant rate infusion with or without butorphanol for standing sedation of horses. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2012. link 73 Ringer SK, Portier KG, Fourel I, Bettschart-Wolfensberger R. Development of a xylazine constant rate infusion with or without butorphanol for standing sedation of horses. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2012. link 74 Mason KP, Green SM, Piacevoli Q. Adverse event reporting tool to standardize the reporting and tracking of adverse events during procedural sedation: a consensus document from the World SIVA International Sedation Task Force. British journal of anaesthesia 2012. link 75 Egan TD, Obara S, Jenkins TE, Jaw-Tsai SS, Amagasu S, Cook DR et al.. AZD-3043: a novel, metabolically labile sedative-hypnotic agent with rapid and predictable emergence from hypnosis. Anesthesiology 2012. link 76 Becker DE. Pharmacokinetic considerations for moderate and deep sedation. Anesthesia progress 2011. link 77 Green SM, Mason KP. Stratification of sedation risk--a challenge to the sedation continuum. Paediatric anaesthesia 2011. link 78 Iirola T, Vilo S, Manner T, Aantaa R, Lahtinen M, Scheinin M et al.. Bioavailability of dexmedetomidine after intranasal administration. European journal of clinical pharmacology 2011. link 79 Restitutti F, Honkavaara JM, Raekallio MR, Kuusela EK, Vainio OM. Effects of different doses of L-659'066 on the bispectral index and clinical sedation in dogs treated with dexmedetomidine. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2011. link 80 Hofmann N, Datz C, Schöchl H. Sedation training using a human patient simulator. Digestion 2010. link 81 Maurer WG, Philip BK. Propofol infusion platforms: opportunities and challenges. Digestion 2010. link 82 Dawson R, von Fintel N, Nairn S. Sedation assessment using the Ramsay scale. Emergency nurse : the journal of the RCN Accident and Emergency Nursing Association 2010. link 83 Springman SR, Andrei AC, Willmann K, Rusy DA, Warren ME, Han S et al.. A comparison of SNAP II and bispectral index monitoring in patients undergoing sedation. Anaesthesia 2010. link 84 Ellett ML. A literature review of the safety and efficacy of using propofol for sedation in endoscopy. Gastroenterology nursing : the official journal of the Society of Gastroenterology Nurses and Associates 2010. link 85 Zuurman L, Passier PC, de Kam ML, Kleijn HJ, Cohen AF, van Gerven JM. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic effects of the intravenous CB1 receptor agonist Org 26828 in healthy male volunteers. Journal of psychopharmacology (Oxford, England) 2010. link 86 Shaver K, Weiss S, Braude D. Agreement on sedation-related events between a procedural sedation registry and computerized medical records. The American journal of emergency medicine 2010. link 87 Hession PM, Joshi GP. Sedation: not quite that simple. Anesthesiology clinics 2010. link 88 Okawa K, Ichinohe T, Kaneko Y. A comparison of propofol and dexmedetomidine for intravenous sedation: a randomized, crossover study of the effects on the central and autonomic nervous systems. Anesthesia and analgesia 2010. link 89 Kawaai H, Satoh J, Watanabe M, Kan K, Ganzberg S, Yamazaki S. A comparison of intravenous sedation with two doses of dexmedetomidine: 0.2 µg/kg/hr Versus 0.4 µg/kg/hr. Anesthesia progress 2010. link 90 Gardner RB, White GW, Ramsey DS, Boucher JF, Kilgore WR, Huhtinen MK. Efficacy of sublingual administration of detomidine gel for sedation of horses undergoing veterinary and husbandry procedures under field conditions. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 2010. link 91 Yeganeh N, Roshani B, Almasi A, Jamshidi N. Correlation between bispectoral index and predicted effect-site concentration of propofol in different levels of target-controlled, propofol induced sedation in healthy volunteers. Archives of Iranian medicine 2010. link 92 Absalom AR, Menon DK. BIS and spectral entropy monitoring during sedation with midazolam/remifentanil and dexmedetomidine/remifentanil. Critical care (London, England) 2009. link 93 Thomson AJ, Nimmo AF, Tiplady B, Glen JB. Evaluation of a new method of assessing depth of sedation using two-choice visual reaction time testing on a mobile phone. Anaesthesia 2009. link 94 Upton RN, Martinez AM, Grant C. Comparison of the sedative properties of CNS 7056, midazolam, and propofol in sheep. British journal of anaesthesia 2009. link 95 Kilborn A, Suresh N, Averley P. A prospective audit to investigate the level of consciousness of children requiring conscious sedation using an 'alternative technique'. SAAD digest 2009. link 96 Hosaka K, Jackson D, Pickrell JE, Heima M, Milgrom P. Flumazenil reversal of sublingual triazolam: a randomized controlled clinical trial. Journal of the American Dental Association (1939) 2009. link 97 Brosnan RJ, Steffey EP. Sedative effects of propofol in horses. Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia 2009. link 98 Nishiyama T. Auditory evoked potentials index versus bispectral index during propofol sedation in spinal anesthesia. Journal of anesthesia 2009. link 99 DeMaria S, Levine AI, Cohen LB. Human patient simulation and its role in endoscopic sedation training. Gastrointestinal endoscopy clinics of North America 2008. link 100 Voynarovska M, Cohen LB. The role of the endoscopy nurse or assistant in endoscopic sedation. Gastrointestinal endoscopy clinics of North America 2008. link

Original source

[1]
Comparison of time-series models for predicting physiological metrics under sedation. — Tu Z, Jeffries SD, Morse J, Hemmerling TM Journal of clinical monitoring and computing (2025)
[2]
Use of 2 sedation protocols to successfully validate a sedation assessment scale in bearded dragons (Pogona vitticeps). — Pinho RH, Reed M, Chapman K, Pang DSJ American journal of veterinary research (2025)
[3]
The effect of intramuscular atipamezole on head height and sedation scores in detomidine-sedated horses. — Mascarenhas C, Castro D, Lascola KM, Hofmeister E, Clark-Price SC Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia (2025)
[4]
Psychomotor Responses to Independent Visual, Auditory and Tactile Electrical stimuli during Sevoflurane sedation (PRIVATES). — Hollmann VC, Darwood ARJ, Sarai PS, Strutton PH, Harrop-Griffiths W, Mullington CJ British journal of anaesthesia (2025)
[5]
Comparison of intramuscular medetomidine versus medetomidine-vatinoxan sedation in bearded dragons (Pogonavitticeps). — Pinho RH, Reed M, Chapman K, Pang DS Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia (2025)
[6]
Peripheral alpha 2-adrenergic antagonist vatinoxan improves the quality of medetomidine-midazolam sedation in Wistar rats. — Lindh E, Meller A, Alm K, Finckenberg P, Raekallio M, Honkavaara J Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia (2025)
[7]
The Association Between Dexmedetomidine and Bradycardia: An Analysis of FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) Data and Transcriptomic Profiles. — Morris R, Kuppa SA, Zhu X, Bu K, Han W, Cheng F Genes (2025)
[8]
Korean clinical practice guidelines for diagnostic and procedural sedation. — Kim SH, Moon YJ, Chae MS, Lee YJ, Karm MH, Joo EY et al. Korean journal of anesthesiology (2024)
[9]
Comparative Analysis of the Performance of Electroencephalogram Parameters for Monitoring the Depth of Sedation During Remimazolam Target-Controlled Infusion. — Bae MI, Bae J, Song Y, Kim M, Han DW Anesthesia and analgesia (2024)
[10]
Bispectral Index versus the University of Michigan Sedation Scale in assessing sedation depth during pediatric drug-induced sleep endoscopy. — Zheng Y, Xiong B, Sang A, Liu X, Li X, Song X Sleep & breathing = Schlaf & Atmung (2024)
[11]
Dose titration of intravenously administered gamma-hydroxybutyric acid for sedation in Holstein-Friesian calves. — Cuypers C, Alonso B, Devreese M, Schauvliege S Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997) (2024)
[12]
Similarities in consciousness occurring during sleep and sedation. — Turner AJF, Wehrman J, Sanders RD British journal of anaesthesia (2023)
[13]
Practical guide for safe sedation. — Hara T, Ozawa A, Shibutani K, Tsujino K, Miyauchi Y, Kawano T et al. Journal of anesthesia (2023)
[14]
Graph approaches for analysis of brain connectivity during dexmedetomidine sedation. — Kim PJ, Kim HT, Choi B, Shin TJ Neuroscience letters (2023)
[15]
Is Recreational Marijuana Use Associated With Changes in the Vital Signs or Anesthetic Requirements During Intravenous Sedation? — Gangwani P, Lillian D, Dobbins J, Feng C, Vorrasi J, Kolokythas A Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (2023)
[16]
Breathe-squeeze: pharmacodynamics of a stimulus-free behavioural paradigm to track conscious states during sedation — Guay CS, Hight D, Gupta G, Kafashan M, Luong AH, Avidan MS et al. British journal of anaesthesia (2023)
[17]
Importance of assessing for cannabis use prior to propofol sedation for endoscopy. — Cerezo Ruiz A Revista espanola de enfermedades digestivas (2021)
[18]
Dexmedetomidine-induced deep sedation mimics non-rapid eye movement stage 3 sleep: large-scale validation using machine learning. — Ramaswamy SM, Weerink MAS, Struys MMRF, Nagaraj SB Sleep (2021)
[19]
Capability of processed EEG parameters to monitor conscious sedation in endoscopy is similar to general anaesthesia. — Garbe J, Eisenmann S, Kantelhardt JW, Duenninghaus F, Michl P, Rosendahl J United European gastroenterology journal (2021)
[20]
The relationship between the effect-site concentration of propofol and sedation scale in children: a pharmacodynamic modeling study. — Jang YE, Ji SH, Lee JH, Kim EH, Kim JT, Kim HS BMC anesthesiology (2021)
[21]
A comparison of GABA-ergic (propofol) and non-GABA-ergic (dexmedetomidine) sedation on visual and motor cortical oscillations, using magnetoencephalography. — Saxena N, Muthukumaraswamy SD, Richmond L, Babic A, Singh KD, Hall JE et al. NeuroImage (2021)
[22]
Development and validation of the facial scale (FaceSed) to evaluate sedation in horses. — de Oliveira AR, Gozalo-Marcilla M, Ringer SK, Schauvliege S, Fonseca MW, Esteves Trindade PH et al. PloS one (2021)
[23]
Efficacy and safety of remimazolam in procedural sedation and analgesia: A protocol for systematic review and meta analysis. — Wang F, Zhou Q, Shen M, Quan J, Chen J, Shi J et al. Medicine (2020)
[24]
Evaluation of subcutaneous administration of alfaxalone-midazolam and dexmedetomidine-midazolam for sedation of ball pythons — Yaw TJ, Mans C, Johnson S, Bunke L, Doss GA, Sladky KK Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association (2020)
[25]
Innovation in sedation and analgesia training. — Teng WN, Su BC, Cheng HW Current opinion in anaesthesiology (2019)
[26]
The disturbance in dynamic property in the reconstructed state space during nitrous oxide administration. — Kim PJ, Kim HG, Shin TJ Neuroreport (2019)
[27]
A kinematic comparison of the locomotor pattern of horses sedated with detomidine alone and in combination with low doses of butorphanol. — Frigerio MA, Gómez Cisneros D, Santiago Llorente I, Manso-Díaz G, López-Sanromán J Equine veterinary journal (2019)
[28]
How to score sedation and adjust the administration rate of sedatives in horses: a literature review and introduction of the Ghent Sedation Algorithm. — Schauvliege S, Cuypers C, Michielsen A, Gasthuys F, Gozalo-Marcilla M Veterinary anaesthesia and analgesia (2019)
[29]
Transient subcortical functional connectivity upon emergence from propofol sedation in human male volunteers: evidence for active emergence. — Nir T, Or-Borichev A, Izraitel E, Hendler T, Lerner Y, Matot I British journal of anaesthesia (2019)
[30]
Zebrafish behavioural profiling identifies GABA and serotonin receptor ligands related to sedation and paradoxical excitation. — McCarroll MN, Gendelev L, Kinser R, Taylor J, Bruni G, Myers-Turnbull D et al. Nature communications (2019)
[31]
Changes in topographic electroencephalogram during deepening levels of propofol sedation based on alertness/sedation scale under bispectral index guidance. — Bakry M, Bakry R Anaesthesiology intensive therapy (2019)
[32]
Bispectral index monitoring of sedation depth during endoscopy: a meta-analysis with trial sequential analysis of randomized controlled trials. — Zhang H, Lu Y, Wang L, Lv J, Ma Y, Wang W et al. Minerva anestesiologica (2019)
[33]
A New Index of Coordinated Posterior and Anterior Evoked EEG to Detect Recall Under Sedation - A Pilot Study. — Baron Shahaf D, Hare GMT, Baker AJ, Chenosia V, Priven L, Mistry N et al. Scientific reports (2019)
[34]
The correlation of heart rate between natural sleep and dexmedetomidine sedation. — Kang D, Lim C, Shim DJ, Kim H, Kim JW, Chung HJ et al. Korean journal of anesthesiology (2019)
[35]
Challenges of bringing a new sedative to market! — Sear JW Current opinion in anaesthesiology (2018)
[36]
Safety of moderate-to-deep sedation performed by sedation practitioners: A national prospective observational study. — Koers L, Eberl S, Cappon A, Bouwman A, Schlack W, Hermanides J et al. European journal of anaesthesiology (2018)
[37]
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