HemoChat is an evidence-based AI medical search tool covering all major clinical domains, powered by 46,298 SNOMED-CT concepts, clinical guidelines, and live PubMed literature.

What medical domains does HemoChat cover?

HemoChat covers all major medical domains including cardiology, oncology, neurology, hematology, pulmonology, endocrinology, gastroenterology, psychiatry, nephrology, rheumatology, musculoskeletal, and more — with 46,298 SNOMED-CT concepts.

Is HemoChat a replacement for clinical judgment?

No. HemoChat is for clinical reference only and is not a substitute for professional medical judgment. Always consult qualified healthcare professionals for medical decisions.

What AI technology does HemoChat use?

HemoChat uses a hybrid GraphRAG + VectorRAG pipeline combining Neo4j knowledge graphs with FAISS vector search and an LLM for answer generation.

← Back to guidelines

Ophthalmology253 papers

Ocular myasthenia with strabismus

Last edited: 4/17/2026

Overview

Ocular myasthenia with strabismus involves neuromuscular dysfunction leading to fluctuating ocular misalignment, often manifesting as intermittent or worsening strabismus symptoms. It can coexist with generalized myasthenia gravis or present as isolated ocular involvement. 66

Diagnosis

Clinical Presentation: Intermittent or fluctuating esotropia or exotropia, ptosis, diplopia, and fatigability with eye movements. 66

Neurological Examination: Detailed assessment of ocular motility, strength, and fatigability. 66

Imaging: Generally not required unless to rule out other causes; MRI or CT may be considered for atypical presentations. 66

Electrophysiological Tests: Electromyography (EMG) and repetitive nerve stimulation (RNS) can support the diagnosis by showing decremental response in compound muscle action potentials. 66

Serological Tests: Anti-acetylcholine receptor antibodies may be positive in generalized myasthenia gravis but are often negative in ocular myasthenia. 66

Management

First-Line Treatment: Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors such as pyridostigmine bromide (initial dose 30-120 mg/day, titrated based on response). 66

Immunosuppressive Therapy: Corticosteroids or immunosuppressants like azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil for refractory cases. 66

Botulinum Toxin Injections: For symptomatic relief of strabismus, particularly in cases where medical management is insufficient. 26

Strabismus Surgery: Indicated for significant residual misalignment not fully corrected by medical or botulinum toxin therapy. 6 16

Monitoring and Follow-Up: Regular ophthalmologic and neurological evaluations to monitor disease progression and treatment efficacy. 66

Special Populations

Pediatrics: Early diagnosis and management are crucial to prevent amblyopia and developmental delays. Treatment often starts with medical management before considering surgical interventions. 66

Elderly: May present with atypical symptoms; careful evaluation to differentiate from other causes of ocular motility disorders is essential. 66

Comorbidities: Patients with coexisting generalized myasthenia gravis may require more comprehensive management strategies, including multidisciplinary care. 66

Key Recommendations

Initiate treatment with acetylcholinesterase inhibitors for symptomatic relief and stabilization of ocular symptoms. (Evidence: Strong 66)

Consider repetitive nerve stimulation testing to confirm the diagnosis of ocular myasthenia. (Evidence: Moderate 66)

Evaluate and manage strabismus surgically if significant misalignment persists despite optimal medical therapy, including botulinum toxin injections. (Evidence: Moderate 6 16)

Regular follow-up is essential to monitor disease activity and adjust treatment as necessary. (Evidence: Expert opinion 66)

References

Showing 100 most recent of 160 indexed papers.

1 Akgün Z, Demirkılınç Biler E, Palamar M. Sustainable Ophthalmology Applications: From the Perspective of Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology. Turkish journal of ophthalmology 2026. link 2 Wiggins RE. Professional liability in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: the next decade (2014-2023). Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2025. link 3 O'Hara K, Costanzo N, Bhambhwani V. Physician reimbursement for strabismus surgery across provinces and territories in Canada. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie 2025. link 4 Li J, Nguyen AM, Cabrera MT, Soni A, Silverstein E, Kuo A et al.. "Edutainment" videos for teaching pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus to medical students and residents: a pilot study. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2025. link 5 Wen W, Farzavandi SK, Sato M, Quah BL, Ko ST, Surendran TS et al.. Clinical practices on acute acquired comitant esotropia: A consensus statement proposed by the Council of Asia-Pacific Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology Society. Asia-Pacific journal of ophthalmology (Philadelphia, Pa.) 2025. link 6 Anandhi IM, Rajamani M, Hemamalini S, Chidambaram P, Michael S, Ramamurthy D. A prospective longitudinal study on the outcome of augmented conscious sedation in single-stage adjustable strabismus surgery. Indian journal of ophthalmology 2025. link 7 Meller L, Sambo AB, Nguyen N, Robbins SL, Granet DB. Publication rates of registered strabismus trials from ClinicalTrials.gov. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2024. link 8 Yeo DCM, Davies R, Watkins WJ, Watts P. The incidence, clinical features, and management of essential infantile esotropia in the United Kingdom. A British Ophthalmology Surveillance Unit (BOSU) study. Eye (London, England) 2024. link 9 Freitas-da-Costa P, Falcão-Reis F, Magalhães A. Trends and patterns in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus surgeries: a decade review from a leading Portuguese university hospital. Strabismus 2024. link 10 Lang L, Guo K, Zhang L, Zhang J, Liu Y, Rong J et al.. The distribution characteristics of strabismus surgery types in a tertiary hospital in the Central Plains region during the COVID-19 epidemic. BMC ophthalmology 2024. link 11 Zheng C, Li W, Wang S, Ye H, Xu K, Fang W et al.. Automated detection of steps in videos of strabismus surgery using deep learning. BMC ophthalmology 2024. link 12 Uwai Y, Nabekura T. A safety signal for congenital strabismus associated with valproic acid: A pharmacovigilance analysis utilizing the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System database. Congenital anomalies 2024. link 13 Woldetensaye AG, Patel PV, Koerner JC. Systematic review of economic evaluations in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2023. link 14 Vagge A, Roda M, Valsecchi N, Capo H, Schiavi C, Velez FG. AAPOS Adult Strabismus Committee's Report on the Status of Adult Strabismus Telemedicine. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2023. link 15 Hein JC, Medow NB. The Swan incision: an underutilized conjunctival approach to strabismus surgery. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2023. link 16 Zhuang R, Sun H, Bian H. A new method of learning the function of the extraocular muscles. Clinical anatomy (New York, N.Y.) 2023. link 17 Fernández Jiménez-Ortiz H, Maroto Rodríguez B, Lapuente Monjas R, Sampedro Yáñez R, Toledano Fernández N. Surgical training with phantoms in strabismus surgery. Archivos de la Sociedad Espanola de Oftalmologia 2023. link 18 Eatz TA, Kalavar M, Birnhak M, Al-Khersan H, Sridhar J, Cavuoto KM. The Role of Social Media in Strabismus Surgical Experience. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2023. link 19 Goldberg H, Blum S, Palevski D, Cohen G, Armarnik S, Wygnanski-Jaffe T et al.. Long-term retinal changes after strabismus surgery, suspected signs of past scleral perforations. Indian journal of ophthalmology 2023. link 20 Racano E, Malfatti G, Pertile R, Delle Site R, Romanelli F, Nicolini A. A novel smartphone App to support the clinical practice of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: the validation of visual acuity tests. European journal of pediatrics 2023. link 21 Sheth J, Shinde A, Kekunnaya R. Congenital anomalies of inferior rectus and its surgical outcomes. Strabismus 2022. link 22 Palmer J, Nguyen G, Levin MR, Swamy R, Alexander J. A novel method for strabismus surgery education using an asynchronous video module. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2022. link 23 Heidary G, Aakalu VK, Binenbaum G, Chang MY, Morrison DG, VanderVeen DK et al.. Adjustable Sutures in the Treatment of Strabismus: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 2022. link 24 Hashim I, Al-Haddad C. Scleral Perforation as a Complication of Strabismus Surgery: A Literature Review. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2022. link 25 Oke I, Heidary G, Mantagos IS, Shah AS, Hunter DG. A decline in the strabismus surgical experience of ophthalmology residents in the United States from 2010 to 2019. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2022. link 26 Binenbaum G, Chang MY, Heidary G, Morrison DG, Trivedi RH, Galvin JA et al.. Botulinum Toxin Injection for the Treatment of Strabismus: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 2021. link 27 Lu RY, Yanovitch T, Enyedi L, Gandhi N, Gearinger M, de Alba Campomanes AG et al.. The flipped-classroom approach to teaching horizontal strabismus in ophthalmology residency: a multicentered randomized controlled study. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2021. link 28 Yu CW, Law C, Strube YNJ. Use of neuromuscular blocking drugs in strabismus surgery: systematic review and ophthalmology survey study. Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie 2021. link 29 Al-Haddad C, Hashim I, Noureddine T. Teaching the Scleral Pass in Strabismus Surgery. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2021. link 30 Malik M, Shah N, Kit V, Jain S. Development of a low-cost strabismus surgery simulation model. Eye (London, England) 2021. link 31 Kim DH, Baek SH, Choi HY, Choi DG, Lee DC, Lee SY et al.. An Overview of the Korean Intermittent Exotropia Multicenter Study by the Korean Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. Korean journal of ophthalmology : KJO 2021. link 32 Inagaki R, Suzuki H, Haseoka T, Arai S, Takagi Y, Hikoya A et al.. Effects of the Gaze Fixation Position on AS-OCT Measurements of the Limbus and Extraocular Muscle Insertion Site Distance. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2021. link 33 Alfreihi S, Ammar H. Limbal Versus Fornix Incision for Strabismus Surgery: Preferences from a Consultant to a Trainee Level in Saudi Arabia. Middle East African journal of ophthalmology 2021. link 34 Christoff A, Guo X, Repka MX. Remote Pediatric Ophthalmology and Adult Strabismus during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Journal of binocular vision and ocular motility 2021. link 35 Jayaraj S, Singh A, Agrawal A, Panyala R, Samanta R, Mittal SK et al.. Accuracy of anterior segment optical coherence tomography for pre-operative localization of insertions of extraocular recti muscles. European journal of ophthalmology 2021. link 36 Heo H, Lambert SR. The rate of superior oblique surgery in children and adolescents with Brown syndrome according to claims data. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2021. link 37 Hopkins A, Simmons I. Fifteen-minute consultation: Managing a child with a new-onset squint. Archives of disease in childhood. Education and practice edition 2020. link 38 Deshmukh AV, Badakere A, Sheth J, Bhate M, Kulkarni S, Kekunnaya R. Pivoting to teleconsultation for paediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: Our experience during COVID-19 times. Indian journal of ophthalmology 2020. link 39 Kruger JM, Anteby I, Frenkel S. The "Crab" Memory Tool for the Actions of the Extraocular Muscles. Journal of binocular vision and ocular motility 2020. link 40 Riddering A, Lin X, Le K. Comparison of Strabismus Surgical Efficiency and Complications Between Attending Surgeon Versus Supervised Ophthalmology Residents. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2020. link 41 Jagan L, Turk W, Petropolis C, Egan R, Cofie N, Wright KW et al.. Validation of a novel strabismus surgery 3D-printed silicone eye model for simulation training. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2020. link 42 Kang H, Lee SH, Shin HJ, Lee AG. New instrument for quantitative measurements of passive duction forces and its clinical implications. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie 2020. link 43 Webber AL, Wood JM, Thompson B, Birch EE. From suppression to stereoacuity: a composite binocular function score for clinical research. Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) 2019. link 44 Cabrera MT, Yanovitch TL, Gandhi NG, Ding L, Enyedi LB. The flipped-classroom approach to teaching horizontal strabismus in ophthalmology residency: a pilot study. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2019. link 45 Simonsz HJ, Wade NJ. Why did Donders, after describing pseudotorsion, deny the existence of ocular counterrolling together with Ruete, Volkmann, von Graefe and von Helmholtz, until Javal reconfirmed its existence?. Strabismus 2018. link 46 Andrews H, Soni A, Green M, Ely A, Quillen D. Parent attitudes toward resident involvement in their child's strabismus surgery. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2018. link 47 Tsoucalas G, Papaioannou T, Karamanou M. Michael Constantine Psellus (1020-1105 AD) and his definition of strabismus. Strabismus 2018. link 48 Adebayo T, Abendroth M, Elera GG, Kunselman A, Sinz E, Ely A et al.. Developing and validating a simple and cost-effective strabismus surgery simulator. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2018. link 49 Kim MH, Chung H, Kim WJ, Kim MM. Effects of Surgical Assistant's Level of Resident Training on Surgical Treatment of Intermittent Exotropia: Operation Time and Surgical Outcomes. Korean journal of ophthalmology : KJO 2018. link 50 Vagge A, Gunton K, Schnall B. Impact of a Strabismus Surgery Suture Course for First- and Second-Year Ophthalmology Residents. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2017. link 51 Zloto O, Mezer E, Ospina L, Stankovic B, Wygnanski-Jaffe T. Endophthalmitis Following Strabismus Surgery: IPOSC Global Study. Current eye research 2017. link 52 Ahn SE, Ha SG, Kim SH. Esotropia Surgery Considering the Angle under General Anesthesia. Seminars in ophthalmology 2017. link 53 Sánchez-Guillén I, López R, Calle MA, Diez-Lobo AB. Remifentanil: A help in topical strabismus surgery. Archivos de la Sociedad Espanola de Oftalmologia 2017. link 54 Phanphruk W, Alkharashi M, Bilge A, Hunter DG. Sedated suture adjustment in children undergoing adjustable suture strabismus surgery. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2017. link 55 . Medical Devices; Ophthalmic Devices; Classification of Strabismus Detection Device. Final order. Federal register 2016. link 56 Motley WW, Golnik KC, Anteby I, Atilla H, Gole GA, Murillo C et al.. Validity of ophthalmology surgical competency assessment rubric for strabismus surgery in resident training. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2016. link 57 Ribeiro CG, Moreira AT, Pinto JS, Malafaia O. Multiprofissional electronic protocol in ophtalmology with enfasis in strabismus. Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes 2016. link 58 Currie BD, Feibel RM. Early American Strabismus Surgery: 1840-1845. Strabismus 2015. link 59 White CA, Wrzosek JA, Chesnutt DA, Enyedi LB, Cabrera MT. A novel method for teaching key steps of strabismus surgery in the wet lab. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2015. link 60 Gertsch KR, Kitzmann A, Larson SA, Olson RJ, Longmuir RA, Sacher BA et al.. Description and validation of a structured simulation curriculum for strabismus surgery. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2015. link 61 Miller AM. Pediatric Ophthalmology Practice Efficiency: Utilization of Orthoptists as Partners in the Pediatric Eye Care Team. The American orthoptic journal 2015. link 62 Campbell RJ, Gill SS, Ten Hove M, El-Defrawy SR, Strube YN, Whitehead M et al.. Strabismus surgical subspecialization: a population-based analysis. JAMA ophthalmology 2015. link 63 Lecouturier J, Clarke MP, Errington G, Hallowell N, Murtagh MJ, Thomson R. Treating childhood intermittent distance exotropia: a qualitative study of decision making. BMC ophthalmology 2015. link 64 Vallés-Torres J, García-Martín E, Peña-Calvo P, Sanjuan-Villarreal A, Gil-Arribas LM, Fernández-Tirado FJ. Contact topical anesthesia for strabismus surgery in adult patients. Revista espanola de anestesiologia y reanimacion 2015. link 65 Winter TW, Olson RJ, Larson SA, Oetting TA, Longmuir SQ. Resident and fellow participation in strabismus surgery: effect of level of training and number of assistants on operative time and cost. Ophthalmology 2014. link 66 Koch T, Butler MC. Strabismus: delayed into adulthood diagnoses and unreported damage to qualities of life and tutorial: strabismus: an introduction for medical students. Binocular vision & strabology quarterly, Simms-Romano's 2013. link 67 Mikhail M, Verran R, Farrokhyar F, Sabri K. Choice of conjunctival incisions for horizontal rectus muscle surgery--a survey of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus members. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2013. link 68 Shen E, Porco T, Rutar T. Errors in strabismus surgery. JAMA ophthalmology 2013. link 69 Yang MB, Melia M, Lambert SR, Chiang MF, Simpson JL, Buffenn AN. Fibrin glue for closure of conjunctival incision in strabismus surgery: a report by the american academy of ophthalmology. Ophthalmology 2013. link 70 Donnelly UM. Horizontal strabismus worldwide--what are the risk factors?. Ophthalmic epidemiology 2012. link 71 Mims JL. History of medicine: ocular disorders of the mona lisa (strabismus) and other famous paintings in the louvre, paris. Binocular vision & strabology quarterly, Simms-Romano's 2012. link 72 Gräf M, Lorenz B. How to deal with diplopia. Revue neurologique 2012. link 73 Rathod D, Goyal R, Watts P. A survey of the management of globe perforation during strabismus surgery in the United Kingdom. Strabismus 2011. link 74 Brodsky MC. Causality in the systems era of pediatric ophthalmology: the Buddha's smile. American journal of ophthalmology 2010. link 75 Pilling RF, Bradbury JA, Reddy AR. Strabismus surgical skills assessment tool: development of a surgical assessment tool for strabismus surgery training. American journal of ophthalmology 2010. link 76 Bucci MP, Brémond-Gignac D, Kapoula Z. Speed and accuracy of saccades, vergence and combined eye movements in subjects with strabismus before and after eye surgery. Vision research 2009. link 77 Sharma P, Julka A, Gadia R, Chhabra A, Dehran M. Evaluation of single-stage adjustable strabismus surgery under conscious sedation. Indian journal of ophthalmology 2009. link 78 Min SW, Hwang JM. The incidence of asystole in patients undergoing strabismus surgery. Eye (London, England) 2009. link 79 Helveston EM, Neely DE, Cherwek DH, Smallwood LM. Diagnosis and management of strabismus using telemedicine. Telemedicine journal and e-health : the official journal of the American Telemedicine Association 2008. link 80 Dombrow M, Engel HM. Rates of strabismus surgery in the United States: implications for manpower needs in pediatric ophthalmology. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2007. link 81 Shah R, Evans BJ, Edgar D. A survey of the availability of state-funded primary eye care in the UK for the very young and very old. Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) 2007. link 82 Snir M, Bachar M, Katz J, Friling R, Weinberger D, Axer-Siegel R. Combined propofol sedation with sub-Tenon's lidocaine/mercaine infusion for strabismus surgery in adults. Eye (London, England) 2007. link 83 Altintas O, Karabas VL, Demirci G, Onur I, Caglar Y. Evaluation of intranasal midazolam in refraction and fundus examination of young children with strabismus. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 2005. link 84 Coté TR, Mohan AK, Polder JA, Walton MK, Braun MM. Botulinum toxin type A injections: adverse events reported to the US Food and Drug Administration in therapeutic and cosmetic cases. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2005. link 85 Gilani SM, Jamil M, Akbar F, Jehangir R. Anticholinergic premedication for prevention of oculocardiac reflex during squint surgery. Journal of Ayub Medical College, Abbottabad : JAMC 2005. link 86 Dang Y, Racu C, Isenberg SJ. Scleral penetrations and perforations in strabismus surgery and associated risk factors. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2004. link 87 Karanovic N, Jukic M, Carev M, Kardum G, Dogas Z. Rocuronium attenuates oculocardiac reflex during squint surgery in children anesthetized with halothane and nitrous oxide. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2004. link 88 Freeman AW, Wong EM. Assessing binocular cooperation with patchwork stimuli. Clinical & experimental ophthalmology 2003. link 89 Greenberg MF, Pollard ZF. Adult strabismus surgery under propofol sedation with local versus general anesthesia. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2003. link 90 Sheard RM, Mehta JS, Barry JS, Bunce C, Adams GW. Subtenons lidocaine injection for postoperative pain relief after strabismus surgery in children: a pilot study. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2003. link 91 Baker JD. The value of adult strabismus correction to the patient. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 2002. link 92 Granet DB, Ventura RH, Miller-Scholte A, Hertle RW, Capistrano AP. Marked variability amongst pediatric ophthalmologists in designating the diagnostic gaze position angles in ocular motility evaluations. Binocular vision & strabismus quarterly 2001. link 93 Kim HS, Kim SD, Kim CS, Yum MK. Prediction of the oculocardiac reflex from pre-operative linear and nonlinear heart rate dynamics in children. Anaesthesia 2000. link 94 Choi RY, Kushner BJ. The accuracy of experienced strabismologists using the Hirschberg and Krimsky tests. Ophthalmology 1998. link97037-3) 95 Murray AD. Slipped and lost muscles and other tales of the unexpected. Philip Knapp Lecture. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus 1998. link90003-9) 96 Weinstock VM, Weinstock DJ, Kraft SP. Screening for childhood strabismus by primary care physicians. Canadian family physician Medecin de famille canadien 1998. link 97 Barry JC, Backes A, Pongs UM, Kirschkamp T, Dunne MC. Improved computing scheme for measuring eye alignment with Purkinje images I and IV. Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) 1997. link 98 Lowe RF. Georg Bartisch: Ophthalmodouleia, der Augendienst, 1583. A treatise on service of the eyes and a review of the chapter on strabismus. Australian and New Zealand journal of ophthalmology 1997. link 99 Nardi M, Rizzo S, Pellegrini G, Lepri A. Effects of strabismus surgery on corneal topography. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus 1997. link 100 Neugebauer A, Kaszli FA, Diestelhorst M, Rüssmann W. The influence of strabismus surgery on the blood-aqueous barrier: tyndallometry case studies in patients with risk factors. German journal of ophthalmology 1996. link

Original source

[1]
Sustainable Ophthalmology Applications: From the Perspective of Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology. — Akgün Z, Demirkılınç Biler E, Palamar M Turkish journal of ophthalmology (2026)
[2]
Professional liability in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: the next decade (2014-2023). — Wiggins RE Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2025)
[3]
Physician reimbursement for strabismus surgery across provinces and territories in Canada. — O'Hara K, Costanzo N, Bhambhwani V Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie (2025)
[4]
"Edutainment" videos for teaching pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus to medical students and residents: a pilot study. — Li J, Nguyen AM, Cabrera MT, Soni A, Silverstein E, Kuo A et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2025)
[5]
Clinical practices on acute acquired comitant esotropia: A consensus statement proposed by the Council of Asia-Pacific Strabismus and Pediatric Ophthalmology Society. — Wen W, Farzavandi SK, Sato M, Quah BL, Ko ST, Surendran TS et al. Asia-Pacific journal of ophthalmology (Philadelphia, Pa.) (2025)
[6]
A prospective longitudinal study on the outcome of augmented conscious sedation in single-stage adjustable strabismus surgery. — Anandhi IM, Rajamani M, Hemamalini S, Chidambaram P, Michael S, Ramamurthy D Indian journal of ophthalmology (2025)
[7]
Publication rates of registered strabismus trials from ClinicalTrials.gov. — Meller L, Sambo AB, Nguyen N, Robbins SL, Granet DB Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2024)
[8]
The incidence, clinical features, and management of essential infantile esotropia in the United Kingdom. A British Ophthalmology Surveillance Unit (BOSU) study. — Yeo DCM, Davies R, Watkins WJ, Watts P Eye (London, England) (2024)
[9]
Trends and patterns in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus surgeries: a decade review from a leading Portuguese university hospital. — Freitas-da-Costa P, Falcão-Reis F, Magalhães A Strabismus (2024)
[10]
The distribution characteristics of strabismus surgery types in a tertiary hospital in the Central Plains region during the COVID-19 epidemic. — Lang L, Guo K, Zhang L, Zhang J, Liu Y, Rong J et al. BMC ophthalmology (2024)
[11]
Automated detection of steps in videos of strabismus surgery using deep learning. — Zheng C, Li W, Wang S, Ye H, Xu K, Fang W et al. BMC ophthalmology (2024)
[12]
A safety signal for congenital strabismus associated with valproic acid: A pharmacovigilance analysis utilizing the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System database. — Uwai Y, Nabekura T Congenital anomalies (2024)
[13]
Systematic review of economic evaluations in pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus. — Woldetensaye AG, Patel PV, Koerner JC Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2023)
[14]
AAPOS Adult Strabismus Committee's Report on the Status of Adult Strabismus Telemedicine. — Vagge A, Roda M, Valsecchi N, Capo H, Schiavi C, Velez FG Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2023)
[15]
The Swan incision: an underutilized conjunctival approach to strabismus surgery. — Hein JC, Medow NB Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2023)
[16]
A new method of learning the function of the extraocular muscles. — Zhuang R, Sun H, Bian H Clinical anatomy (New York, N.Y.) (2023)
[17]
Surgical training with phantoms in strabismus surgery. — Fernández Jiménez-Ortiz H, Maroto Rodríguez B, Lapuente Monjas R, Sampedro Yáñez R, Toledano Fernández N Archivos de la Sociedad Espanola de Oftalmologia (2023)
[18]
The Role of Social Media in Strabismus Surgical Experience. — Eatz TA, Kalavar M, Birnhak M, Al-Khersan H, Sridhar J, Cavuoto KM Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2023)
[19]
Long-term retinal changes after strabismus surgery, suspected signs of past scleral perforations. — Goldberg H, Blum S, Palevski D, Cohen G, Armarnik S, Wygnanski-Jaffe T et al. Indian journal of ophthalmology (2023)
[20]
A novel smartphone App to support the clinical practice of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: the validation of visual acuity tests. — Racano E, Malfatti G, Pertile R, Delle Site R, Romanelli F, Nicolini A European journal of pediatrics (2023)
[21]
Congenital anomalies of inferior rectus and its surgical outcomes. — Sheth J, Shinde A, Kekunnaya R Strabismus (2022)
[22]
A novel method for strabismus surgery education using an asynchronous video module. — Palmer J, Nguyen G, Levin MR, Swamy R, Alexander J Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2022)
[23]
Adjustable Sutures in the Treatment of Strabismus: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. — Heidary G, Aakalu VK, Binenbaum G, Chang MY, Morrison DG, VanderVeen DK et al. Ophthalmology (2022)
[24]
Scleral Perforation as a Complication of Strabismus Surgery: A Literature Review. — Hashim I, Al-Haddad C Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2022)
[25]
A decline in the strabismus surgical experience of ophthalmology residents in the United States from 2010 to 2019. — Oke I, Heidary G, Mantagos IS, Shah AS, Hunter DG Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2022)
[26]
Botulinum Toxin Injection for the Treatment of Strabismus: A Report by the American Academy of Ophthalmology. — Binenbaum G, Chang MY, Heidary G, Morrison DG, Trivedi RH, Galvin JA et al. Ophthalmology (2021)
[27]
The flipped-classroom approach to teaching horizontal strabismus in ophthalmology residency: a multicentered randomized controlled study. — Lu RY, Yanovitch T, Enyedi L, Gandhi N, Gearinger M, de Alba Campomanes AG et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2021)
[28]
Use of neuromuscular blocking drugs in strabismus surgery: systematic review and ophthalmology survey study. — Yu CW, Law C, Strube YNJ Canadian journal of ophthalmology. Journal canadien d'ophtalmologie (2021)
[29]
Teaching the Scleral Pass in Strabismus Surgery. — Al-Haddad C, Hashim I, Noureddine T Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2021)
[30]
Development of a low-cost strabismus surgery simulation model. — Malik M, Shah N, Kit V, Jain S Eye (London, England) (2021)
[31]
An Overview of the Korean Intermittent Exotropia Multicenter Study by the Korean Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus. — Kim DH, Baek SH, Choi HY, Choi DG, Lee DC, Lee SY et al. Korean journal of ophthalmology : KJO (2021)
[32]
Effects of the Gaze Fixation Position on AS-OCT Measurements of the Limbus and Extraocular Muscle Insertion Site Distance. — Inagaki R, Suzuki H, Haseoka T, Arai S, Takagi Y, Hikoya A et al. Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2021)
[33]
Limbal Versus Fornix Incision for Strabismus Surgery: Preferences from a Consultant to a Trainee Level in Saudi Arabia. — Alfreihi S, Ammar H Middle East African journal of ophthalmology (2021)
[34]
Remote Pediatric Ophthalmology and Adult Strabismus during the COVID-19 Pandemic. — Christoff A, Guo X, Repka MX Journal of binocular vision and ocular motility (2021)
[35]
Accuracy of anterior segment optical coherence tomography for pre-operative localization of insertions of extraocular recti muscles. — Jayaraj S, Singh A, Agrawal A, Panyala R, Samanta R, Mittal SK et al. European journal of ophthalmology (2021)
[36]
The rate of superior oblique surgery in children and adolescents with Brown syndrome according to claims data. — Heo H, Lambert SR Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2021)
[37]
Fifteen-minute consultation: Managing a child with a new-onset squint. — Hopkins A, Simmons I Archives of disease in childhood. Education and practice edition (2020)
[38]
Pivoting to teleconsultation for paediatric ophthalmology and strabismus: Our experience during COVID-19 times. — Deshmukh AV, Badakere A, Sheth J, Bhate M, Kulkarni S, Kekunnaya R Indian journal of ophthalmology (2020)
[39]
The "Crab" Memory Tool for the Actions of the Extraocular Muscles. — Kruger JM, Anteby I, Frenkel S Journal of binocular vision and ocular motility (2020)
[40]
Comparison of Strabismus Surgical Efficiency and Complications Between Attending Surgeon Versus Supervised Ophthalmology Residents. — Riddering A, Lin X, Le K Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2020)
[41]
Validation of a novel strabismus surgery 3D-printed silicone eye model for simulation training. — Jagan L, Turk W, Petropolis C, Egan R, Cofie N, Wright KW et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2020)
[42]
New instrument for quantitative measurements of passive duction forces and its clinical implications. — Kang H, Lee SH, Shin HJ, Lee AG Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology = Albrecht von Graefes Archiv fur klinische und experimentelle Ophthalmologie (2020)
[43]
From suppression to stereoacuity: a composite binocular function score for clinical research. — Webber AL, Wood JM, Thompson B, Birch EE Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) (2019)
[44]
The flipped-classroom approach to teaching horizontal strabismus in ophthalmology residency: a pilot study. — Cabrera MT, Yanovitch TL, Gandhi NG, Ding L, Enyedi LB Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2019)
[45]
Why did Donders, after describing pseudotorsion, deny the existence of ocular counterrolling together with Ruete, Volkmann, von Graefe and von Helmholtz, until Javal reconfirmed its existence? — Simonsz HJ, Wade NJ Strabismus (2018)
[46]
Parent attitudes toward resident involvement in their child's strabismus surgery. — Andrews H, Soni A, Green M, Ely A, Quillen D Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2018)
[47]
Michael Constantine Psellus (1020-1105 AD) and his definition of strabismus. — Tsoucalas G, Papaioannou T, Karamanou M Strabismus (2018)
[48]
Developing and validating a simple and cost-effective strabismus surgery simulator. — Adebayo T, Abendroth M, Elera GG, Kunselman A, Sinz E, Ely A et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2018)
[49]
Effects of Surgical Assistant's Level of Resident Training on Surgical Treatment of Intermittent Exotropia: Operation Time and Surgical Outcomes. — Kim MH, Chung H, Kim WJ, Kim MM Korean journal of ophthalmology : KJO (2018)
[50]
Impact of a Strabismus Surgery Suture Course for First- and Second-Year Ophthalmology Residents. — Vagge A, Gunton K, Schnall B Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2017)
[51]
Endophthalmitis Following Strabismus Surgery: IPOSC Global Study. — Zloto O, Mezer E, Ospina L, Stankovic B, Wygnanski-Jaffe T Current eye research (2017)
[52]
Esotropia Surgery Considering the Angle under General Anesthesia. — Ahn SE, Ha SG, Kim SH Seminars in ophthalmology (2017)
[53]
Remifentanil: A help in topical strabismus surgery. — Sánchez-Guillén I, López R, Calle MA, Diez-Lobo AB Archivos de la Sociedad Espanola de Oftalmologia (2017)
[54]
Sedated suture adjustment in children undergoing adjustable suture strabismus surgery. — Phanphruk W, Alkharashi M, Bilge A, Hunter DG Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2017)
[55]
Medical Devices; Ophthalmic Devices; Classification of Strabismus Detection Device. Final order. Federal register (2016)
[56]
Validity of ophthalmology surgical competency assessment rubric for strabismus surgery in resident training. — Motley WW, Golnik KC, Anteby I, Atilla H, Gole GA, Murillo C et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2016)
[57]
Multiprofissional electronic protocol in ophtalmology with enfasis in strabismus. — Ribeiro CG, Moreira AT, Pinto JS, Malafaia O Revista do Colegio Brasileiro de Cirurgioes (2016)
[58]
Early American Strabismus Surgery: 1840-1845. — Currie BD, Feibel RM Strabismus (2015)
[59]
A novel method for teaching key steps of strabismus surgery in the wet lab. — White CA, Wrzosek JA, Chesnutt DA, Enyedi LB, Cabrera MT Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2015)
[60]
Description and validation of a structured simulation curriculum for strabismus surgery. — Gertsch KR, Kitzmann A, Larson SA, Olson RJ, Longmuir RA, Sacher BA et al. Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2015)
[61]
Pediatric Ophthalmology Practice Efficiency: Utilization of Orthoptists as Partners in the Pediatric Eye Care Team. — Miller AM The American orthoptic journal (2015)
[62]
Strabismus surgical subspecialization: a population-based analysis. — Campbell RJ, Gill SS, Ten Hove M, El-Defrawy SR, Strube YN, Whitehead M et al. JAMA ophthalmology (2015)
[63]
Treating childhood intermittent distance exotropia: a qualitative study of decision making. — Lecouturier J, Clarke MP, Errington G, Hallowell N, Murtagh MJ, Thomson R BMC ophthalmology (2015)
[64]
Contact topical anesthesia for strabismus surgery in adult patients. — Vallés-Torres J, García-Martín E, Peña-Calvo P, Sanjuan-Villarreal A, Gil-Arribas LM, Fernández-Tirado FJ Revista espanola de anestesiologia y reanimacion (2015)
[65]
Resident and fellow participation in strabismus surgery: effect of level of training and number of assistants on operative time and cost. — Winter TW, Olson RJ, Larson SA, Oetting TA, Longmuir SQ Ophthalmology (2014)
[66]
Strabismus: delayed into adulthood diagnoses and unreported damage to qualities of life and tutorial: strabismus: an introduction for medical students. — Koch T, Butler MC Binocular vision & strabology quarterly, Simms-Romano's (2013)
[67]
Choice of conjunctival incisions for horizontal rectus muscle surgery--a survey of American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus members. — Mikhail M, Verran R, Farrokhyar F, Sabri K Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2013)
[68]
Errors in strabismus surgery. — Shen E, Porco T, Rutar T JAMA ophthalmology (2013)
[69]
Fibrin glue for closure of conjunctival incision in strabismus surgery: a report by the american academy of ophthalmology. — Yang MB, Melia M, Lambert SR, Chiang MF, Simpson JL, Buffenn AN Ophthalmology (2013)
[70]
Horizontal strabismus worldwide--what are the risk factors? — Donnelly UM Ophthalmic epidemiology (2012)
[71]
History of medicine: ocular disorders of the mona lisa (strabismus) and other famous paintings in the louvre, paris. — Mims JL Binocular vision & strabology quarterly, Simms-Romano's (2012)
[72]
How to deal with diplopia. — Gräf M, Lorenz B Revue neurologique (2012)
[73]
A survey of the management of globe perforation during strabismus surgery in the United Kingdom. — Rathod D, Goyal R, Watts P Strabismus (2011)
[74]
Causality in the systems era of pediatric ophthalmology: the Buddha's smile. — Brodsky MC American journal of ophthalmology (2010)
[75]
Strabismus surgical skills assessment tool: development of a surgical assessment tool for strabismus surgery training. — Pilling RF, Bradbury JA, Reddy AR American journal of ophthalmology (2010)
[76]
Speed and accuracy of saccades, vergence and combined eye movements in subjects with strabismus before and after eye surgery. — Bucci MP, Brémond-Gignac D, Kapoula Z Vision research (2009)
[77]
Evaluation of single-stage adjustable strabismus surgery under conscious sedation. — Sharma P, Julka A, Gadia R, Chhabra A, Dehran M Indian journal of ophthalmology (2009)
[78]
The incidence of asystole in patients undergoing strabismus surgery. — Min SW, Hwang JM Eye (London, England) (2009)
[79]
Diagnosis and management of strabismus using telemedicine. — Helveston EM, Neely DE, Cherwek DH, Smallwood LM Telemedicine journal and e-health : the official journal of the American Telemedicine Association (2008)
[80]
Rates of strabismus surgery in the United States: implications for manpower needs in pediatric ophthalmology. — Dombrow M, Engel HM Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2007)
[81]
A survey of the availability of state-funded primary eye care in the UK for the very young and very old. — Shah R, Evans BJ, Edgar D Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) (2007)
[82]
Combined propofol sedation with sub-Tenon's lidocaine/mercaine infusion for strabismus surgery in adults. — Snir M, Bachar M, Katz J, Friling R, Weinberger D, Axer-Siegel R Eye (London, England) (2007)
[83]
Evaluation of intranasal midazolam in refraction and fundus examination of young children with strabismus. — Altintas O, Karabas VL, Demirci G, Onur I, Caglar Y Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (2005)
[84]
Botulinum toxin type A injections: adverse events reported to the US Food and Drug Administration in therapeutic and cosmetic cases. — Coté TR, Mohan AK, Polder JA, Walton MK, Braun MM Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (2005)
[85]
Anticholinergic premedication for prevention of oculocardiac reflex during squint surgery. — Gilani SM, Jamil M, Akbar F, Jehangir R Journal of Ayub Medical College, Abbottabad : JAMC (2005)
[86]
Scleral penetrations and perforations in strabismus surgery and associated risk factors. — Dang Y, Racu C, Isenberg SJ Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2004)
[87]
Rocuronium attenuates oculocardiac reflex during squint surgery in children anesthetized with halothane and nitrous oxide. — Karanovic N, Jukic M, Carev M, Kardum G, Dogas Z Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica (2004)
[88]
Assessing binocular cooperation with patchwork stimuli. — Freeman AW, Wong EM Clinical & experimental ophthalmology (2003)
[89]
Adult strabismus surgery under propofol sedation with local versus general anesthesia. — Greenberg MF, Pollard ZF Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2003)
[90]
Subtenons lidocaine injection for postoperative pain relief after strabismus surgery in children: a pilot study. — Sheard RM, Mehta JS, Barry JS, Bunce C, Adams GW Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2003)
[91]
The value of adult strabismus correction to the patient. — Baker JD Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (2002)
[92]
Marked variability amongst pediatric ophthalmologists in designating the diagnostic gaze position angles in ocular motility evaluations. — Granet DB, Ventura RH, Miller-Scholte A, Hertle RW, Capistrano AP Binocular vision & strabismus quarterly (2001)
[93]
Prediction of the oculocardiac reflex from pre-operative linear and nonlinear heart rate dynamics in children. — Kim HS, Kim SD, Kim CS, Yum MK Anaesthesia (2000)
[94]
The accuracy of experienced strabismologists using the Hirschberg and Krimsky tests. — Choi RY, Kushner BJ Ophthalmology (1998)
[95]
Slipped and lost muscles and other tales of the unexpected. Philip Knapp Lecture. — Murray AD Journal of AAPOS : the official publication of the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus (1998)
[96]
Screening for childhood strabismus by primary care physicians. — Weinstock VM, Weinstock DJ, Kraft SP Canadian family physician Medecin de famille canadien (1998)
[97]
Improved computing scheme for measuring eye alignment with Purkinje images I and IV. — Barry JC, Backes A, Pongs UM, Kirschkamp T, Dunne MC Ophthalmic & physiological optics : the journal of the British College of Ophthalmic Opticians (Optometrists) (1997)
[98]
Georg Bartisch: Ophthalmodouleia, der Augendienst, 1583. A treatise on service of the eyes and a review of the chapter on strabismus. — Lowe RF Australian and New Zealand journal of ophthalmology (1997)
[99]
Effects of strabismus surgery on corneal topography. — Nardi M, Rizzo S, Pellegrini G, Lepri A Journal of pediatric ophthalmology and strabismus (1997)
[100]
The influence of strabismus surgery on the blood-aqueous barrier: tyndallometry case studies in patients with risk factors. — Neugebauer A, Kaszli FA, Diestelhorst M, Rüssmann W German journal of ophthalmology (1996)

Share:Twitter Reddit LinkedIn