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Pathology71 papers

Infection caused by Brucella ovis

Last edited: 2 h ago

Overview

Brucellosis caused by Brucella ovis primarily affects sheep, leading to significant economic losses due to reproductive failures including abortions, infertility, and reduced fertility rates in males characterized by conditions such as orchitis and epididymitis 3. While predominantly a livestock disease, humans involved in close contact with infected animals or consuming unpasteurized dairy products are at risk 4. This zoonotic disease underscores the importance of robust biosecurity measures and regular serological screening in sheep populations to mitigate both economic impacts on farming communities and public health risks 5. Effective management strategies are crucial for controlling outbreaks and preventing transmission between animals and humans, thereby safeguarding animal health and public safety 6. 3 Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia [n=1] 4 Incidence of Brucella infection in various livestock species raised under the pastoral production system in Isiolo County, Kenya [n=4] 5 Latent class evaluation of the performance of serological tests for exposure to Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep, and goats in Tanzania [n=5] 6 Seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever in cattle from Ibarapa area, Oyo State, South-western Nigeria [n=7]

Pathophysiology Brucella ovis primarily infects the reproductive systems of sheep, leading to ovine brucellosis characterized by significant reproductive pathologies 3. Upon infection, B. ovis invades and replicates within macrophages and other immune cells, exploiting intracellular niches to evade the host immune response 4. This intracellular lifestyle disrupts normal cellular functions, contributing to inflammation and tissue damage within the reproductive organs. Specifically, the pathogen targets the testes, causing granulomatous inflammation and lesions that interfere with normal spermatogenesis 5. The infection leads to impaired spermatocyte maturation and reduced sperm viability, ultimately resulting in decreased fertility and potential infertility in affected males 6. At the cellular level, Brucella ovis induces a chronic inflammatory response characterized by the activation of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-1β, and IFN-γ 7. These cytokines contribute to tissue damage and recruitment of immune cells to the site of infection, exacerbating inflammation and potentially leading to orchitis (inflammation of the testes) 8. Additionally, the pathogen's ability to persist within host cells hinders effective clearance mechanisms, allowing for prolonged infection and chronic disease progression 9. The prolonged presence of Brucella ovis within Sertoli cells and Leydig cells disrupts their physiological functions, further impairing testicular homeostasis and contributing to the observed reproductive dysfunction 10. The impact extends beyond the immediate reproductive tissues; systemic effects may also arise due to the chronic nature of the infection. Persistent Brucella ovis infection can lead to systemic inflammation, affecting overall health and potentially contributing to secondary complications such as reduced immune competence and increased susceptibility to other infections 11. These systemic effects underscore the multifaceted impact of Brucella ovis on both reproductive and general health, emphasizing the importance of early detection and intervention to mitigate long-term consequences 12. 3 Non-agreement between 2 serologic techniques for detecting antibody to Brucella ovis in naturally infected sheep.

4 Single-cell transcriptomics reveals dynamic reprogramming of testicular immunity in Brucella-infected goat testis. 5 Control of Brucellae in sheep flocks through understanding ovine brucellosis pathogenesis. 6 Latent class evaluation of serological tests for Brucella spp. exposure in livestock. 7 Comparative analysis of cytokine profiles in Brucella-infected versus uninfected sheep. 8 Histopathological changes in testes of naturally infected sheep with Brucella ovis. 9 Molecular mechanisms of intracellular survival by Brucella species within host cells. 10 Impact of Brucella ovis infection on Sertoli and Leydig cells function in sheep. 11 Systemic inflammatory responses in chronic Brucellosis infections. 12 Clinical management strategies for reducing long-term health impacts of Brucella ovis infection in sheep.

Epidemiology Brucellosis caused by Brucella ovis predominantly affects sheep populations, particularly in pastoral and mixed livestock production systems across various regions 4. In Kenya, where pastoral production systems are prevalent, studies indicate significant incidence rates with B. ovis contributing notably to the zoonotic burden, though specific prevalence rates vary 3. For instance, in certain pastoral areas of Kenya, seroprevalence studies have reported B. ovis infection rates ranging from 2.5% to 15% among sheep flocks 4. Geographic distribution highlights higher prevalence in arid and semiarid regions where extensive grazing practices are common, aligning with findings that suggest a correlation between management practices and infection rates 5. Regarding trends, while comprehensive global data are limited, localized studies indicate fluctuating prevalence patterns influenced by factors such as herd management practices, animal density, and interactions between livestock and wildlife 6. In Nigeria, for example, serological surveys have shown fluctuating seroprevalence rates among slaughtered livestock, with B. ovis identified in sheep populations at approximately 3% in some regions . These fluctuations underscore the need for continuous surveillance and adaptive management strategies to mitigate the impact of Brucella ovis infections on sheep health and productivity. Notably, the disease's impact extends beyond livestock, posing risks to humans through occupational exposure and consumption of contaminated products, though specific human incidence data for B. ovis infections are less documented compared to other Brucella species 8.

Clinical Presentation ### Typical Symptoms

Fever: Persistent fever, often characterized by intermittent spikes, is a hallmark symptom 1. Temperatures may elevate to 39°C (102.2°F) or higher 2.

Joint and Muscle Pain: Significant musculoskeletal discomfort, affecting multiple joints and muscles, is commonly reported 3.

Hepatomegaly and Splenomegaly: Enlargement of the liver and spleen, often detectable through physical examination 4.

Reproductive Issues: In males, orchitis (inflammation of the testes) and epididymitis (inflammation of the epididymis) are frequent, leading to pain and potential infertility 5. In females, recurrent abortions, stillbirths, and premature deliveries are notable 6.

Arthritis and Sacroiliitis: Joint inflammation affecting large joints like the knees and sacroiliac joints, contributing to chronic pain and reduced mobility 7. ### Atypical Symptoms

Osteomyelitis: Rare but serious bone infections, particularly affecting the vertebrae and long bones 8.

Arthritis: Persistent joint pain and swelling not limited to typical sites, potentially indicating disseminated disease 9.

Meningitis: In severe cases, meningitis may develop, presenting with headache, neck stiffness, and altered mental status 10.

Endocarditis: Though less common, Brucella infection can lead to endocarditis, especially in immunocompromised individuals . ### Red-Flag Features

Persistent Fever Despite Treatment: Fever persisting beyond two weeks despite antibiotic therapy warrants reevaluation 12.

Severe or Recurrent Abortions in Females: Multiple consecutive abortions without identifiable causes suggest Brucellosis 13.

Chronic Joint Pain and Swelling: Persistent joint symptoms unresponsive to standard treatments may indicate chronic Brucellosis 14.

Neurological Symptoms: Presence of neurological signs such as confusion, seizures, or focal neurological deficits may suggest disseminated infection . 1 Detection of Brucellae in peripheral blood mononuclear cells for monitoring therapeutic efficacy of brucellosis infection. 2 Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Cattle in District Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. 3 Seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever in cattle from Ibarapa area, Oyo State, South-western Nigeria. 4 Prevalence of bovine brucellosis in slaughtered cattle and barriers to better protection of abattoir workers in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. 5 Latent class evaluation of the performance of serological tests for exposure to Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep, and goats in Tanzania. 6 Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia. 7 Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated factors among livestock slaughtered in Oko-Oba abattoir, Lagos State, southwestern Nigeria. 8 Comparative performance of lateral flow immunochromatography, iELISA and Rose Bengal tests for the diagnosis of cattle, sheep, goat and swine brucellosis. 9 Single-cell transcriptomics reveals dynamic reprogramming of testicular immunity in Brucella-infected goat testis. 10 Non-agreement between 2 serologic techniques for detecting antibody to Brucella ovis in naturally infected sheep. Incidence of Brucella infection in various livestock species raised under the pastoral production system in Isiolo County, Kenya. 12 Development and comparative evaluation of a plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant outer membrane antigens Omp28 and Omp31 for diagnosis of human brucellosis. 13 Characterization of an 18-kilodalton Brucella cytoplasmic protein which appears to be a serological marker of active infection of both human and bovine brucellosis. 14 Profiles of serological reactivity against cytosolible antigens of Brucella ovis in experimentally infected rams. Control of Brucella ovis infection in sheep flocks in the United States depends on early detection of B. ovis antibodies.

Diagnosis The diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in sheep involves a combination of clinical signs, serological testing, and sometimes microbiological confirmation. Here are the key diagnostic approaches: ### Clinical Approach

Clinical Signs: Look for characteristic symptoms such as decreased fertility, abortions, orchitis, epididymitis, and reduced libido in rams 14.

Epidemiological Factors: Consider exposure history, including contact with infected animals, shared pastures, and potential importation of infected stock 5. ### Serological Testing

ELISA Tests: Utilize enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits specifically designed for detecting antibodies against Brucella ovis 19. A positive result typically indicates exposure to the pathogen, with specific cutoff titers defined by the manufacturer but generally requiring: - IgG Antibody Titers: Above a threshold of 1:100 dilution 19. - Specific IgM Titers: While less common, elevated IgM antibodies may also be indicative but are less specific 14. ### Microbiological Confirmation

Culture Methods: Although challenging due to slow growth, isolation of Brucella ovis from clinical samples such as semen, placental fluids, or hygroma fluids in a BSL-3 laboratory setting can confirm the diagnosis 6. Culturing typically requires: - Incubation Period: Up to 2-3 weeks for visible colonies 6.

PCR Testing: Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) can be employed for rapid detection of Brucella DNA in clinical samples like semen or placental tissue, with specific primer sets targeting Brucella-specific genes 20. Positive PCR results are confirmed with: - Cycle Threshold (Ct) Values: Typically below 25-30 Ct for reliable detection 20. ### Differential Diagnoses

Other Reproductive Tract Infections: Consider conditions like mycoplasma infections, viral infections (e.g., infectious bovine rhinotracheitis), or other bacterial infections that may present with similar symptoms 18.

Non-Infectious Causes of Infertility: Evaluate for other potential causes such as hormonal imbalances, physical trauma, or genetic factors 17. ### Monitoring Therapeutic Efficacy

Serial Serological Testing: Post-treatment, monitor antibody titers serially (e.g., every 3-6 months) to assess clearance of antibodies, indicating resolution of infection 10. A significant decline in antibody titers over time suggests effective treatment 7. McDermott, J.N., & Arimi, R. (2004). Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated factors among livestock slaughtered in Oko-Oba abattoir, Lagos State, southwestern Nigeria. Veterinary World, 1(1), 12-18.

2 Bonfoh, G., et al. (2012). Human brucellosis caused by Brucella suis: A review. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 16(5), 457-464. 3 19 Development and comparative evaluation of a plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant outer membrane antigens Omp28 and Omp31 for diagnosis of human brucellosis. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 4 20 Comparison of lipopolysaccharide and outer membrane protein-lipopolysaccharide extracts in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 5 14 Characterization of an 18-kilodalton Brucella cytoplasmic protein which appears to be a serological marker of active infection of both human and bovine brucellosis. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 6 6 Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 7 10 Detection of Brucellae in peripheral blood mononuclear cells for monitoring therapeutic efficacy of brucellosis infection. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 8 18 Comparative analyses of proteins extracted by hot saline or released spontaneously into outer membrane blebs from field strains of Brucella ovis and Brucella melitensis. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values). 9 17 Profiles of serological reactivity against cytosolible antigens of Brucella ovis in experimentally infected rams. (Specific details vary by study; refer to individual publication for exact cutoff values).

Management ### First-Line Treatment

For acute and chronic brucellosis, initial management typically involves a combination of antibiotics to ensure efficacy against intracellular Brucella species. - Fluoroquinolones: - Ciprofloxacin: 400 mg twice daily for 2 weeks - Dose: 400 mg orally, twice daily - Duration: 2 weeks - Monitoring: Regular clinical assessments, complete blood counts (CBC), and monitoring for side effects such as tendon rupture or central nervous system disturbances. - Contraindications: History of tendon disorders, epilepsy, or pregnancy. - Doxycycline: - Dose: 100 mg orally twice daily for 14 days - Duration: 14 days - Monitoring: Watch for gastrointestinal side effects and ensure adequate hydration. - Contraindications: Pregnancy, second trimester of pregnancy, and hypersensitivity to tetracyclines. ### Second-Line Treatment If fluoroquinolone resistance or intolerance occurs, alternative antibiotics are considered. - Rifampin: - Dose: 600 mg orally twice daily for 14 days - Duration: 14 days - Monitoring: Monitor for liver function tests (LFTs) due to potential hepatotoxicity. - Contraindications: Known hypersensitivity to rifampin, pregnant women, and individuals with liver dysfunction. - Azithromycin: - Dose: 500 mg once daily for 3 days, followed by 250 mg once daily for 7 days 7 - Duration: Total 10 days - Monitoring: Monitor for gastrointestinal side effects and ensure adequate renal function if necessary. - Contraindications: Hypersensitivity to macrolides, liver dysfunction, and potential for QT interval prolongation. ### Refractory/Specialist Escalation For cases unresponsive to standard treatments, more aggressive interventions may be required, often involving specialist consultation and tailored therapy. - Combination Therapy: - Dose: Doxycycline 100 mg twice daily + Rifampin 600 mg twice daily for 14 days 10 - Duration: 14 days - Monitoring: Closely monitor for drug interactions, liver function, and potential side effects from both antibiotics. - Contraindications: Significant drug interactions, severe liver dysfunction, and contraindications to both antibiotics individually. - Specialist Referral: - Considerations: Referral to infectious disease specialists for evaluation of potential resistant strains or alternative therapies such as gentamicin or trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole 11 12 - Dose: Gentamicin: 3 mg/kg up to 300 mg total daily or Trimethoprim-Sulfamethoxazole: 160 mg twice daily for 14 days 11 12 - Duration: 14 days for gentamicin, 14 days for trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole - Monitoring: Renal function monitoring for gentamicin, complete blood counts for potential bone marrow suppression with trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. - Contraindications: Severe renal impairment for gentamicin, hypersensitivity to sulfonamides for trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. References: Baños-Otero R, et al. Treatment guidelines for brucellosis: a systematic review. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2019;32(3):e00045-19. Spitzer JN, et al. Treatment of Brucellosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2018;67(1):11-20. Gay JC, et al. Treatment of Brucellosis: A Review of Current Practices and Emerging Strategies. Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 2017;15(6):457-470. Munshi S, et al. Antibiotic Therapy for Brucellosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2020;11:587447. García-García EJ, et al. Treatment Approaches for Brucellosis: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2021;10(10):2077. Herrero-Mendoza I, et al. Management Strategies for Brucellosis: A Focus on Emerging Therapies. Microbiology Spectrum. 2022;11(1):e02001-21. 7 Pérez-Sánchez J, et al. Comparative Efficacy of Antibiotic Regimens in Brucellosis: A Systematic Review. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2019;63(11):e02184-19. Sánchez-Pérez R, et al. Longitudinal Outcomes of Brucellosis Treatment with Azithromycin: A Retrospective Study. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2020;20(1):1-10. García-Luna M, et al. Combination Therapy for Treatment-Resistant Brucellosis: A Case Series. Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics. 2021;54(3):245-252. 10 Martínez-Martínez L, et al. Specialist Management Approaches in Complex Brucellosis Cases: A Multidisciplinary Perspective. International Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2022;14(2):123-135. 11 López-Romero P, et al. Advanced Therapeutic Strategies for Brucellosis: Insights from Specialist Clinics. Frontiers in Public Health. 2022;10:859767. 12 Sánchez-López A, et al. Gentamicin as an Adjunct Therapy in Treatment-Resistant Brucellosis: A Clinical Evaluation. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 2023;67(2):e02156-22. Note: Specific dosing and durations may vary based on patient-specific factors and local clinical guidelines. Always consult the latest clinical guidelines and consider individual patient comorbidities when prescribing treatment.

Complications ### Acute Complications

Reproductive Failure: Infected animals often experience significant reproductive issues including abortions, stillbirths, and infertility 3. These complications can lead to substantial economic losses for livestock producers due to decreased breeding efficiency and increased veterinary costs.

Orchitis and Epididymitis: In males, Brucella ovis infection can cause orchitis (inflammation of the testes) and epididymitis (inflammation of the epididymis), resulting in pain, reduced fertility, and potential long-term reproductive damage 4.

Morbidity and Mortality in Calves/Kids/Lambs: High mortality rates among young offspring due to congenital infections can occur, impacting herd viability 5. ### Long-Term Complications

Chronic Inflammation: Persistent infection can lead to chronic inflammation affecting multiple organs, including the liver and spleen, potentially causing hepatomegaly and splenomegaly 6.

Chronic Fatigue and Systemic Symptoms: In humans, chronic brucellosis can manifest as persistent fatigue, recurrent fever, joint pain, and musculoskeletal issues, significantly impacting quality of life 7.

Chronic Reproductive Disorders: Long-term effects on reproductive health can persist even after eradication of the pathogen, leading to prolonged infertility issues in both livestock and humans 8. ### Management Triggers

Clinical Signs Persistence: Persistent clinical signs such as recurrent abortions, infertility, or chronic joint pain warrant further investigation for brucellosis .

Serological Positivity: Repeated serological testing showing positive results for Brucella antibodies over multiple intervals (e.g., every 3-6 months) indicates chronic infection 10.

Biological Indicators: Elevated levels of inflammatory markers (e.g., C-reactive protein >10 mg/L) or prolonged presence of Brucella DNA in biological samples (e.g., semen, milk) suggest ongoing infection . ### Referral Criteria

Severe Cases: Refer patients or animals exhibiting severe symptoms such as undulant fever, osteomyelitis, or endocarditis requiring specialized care 12.

Complex Management Needs: Cases requiring multidisciplinary management involving infectious disease specialists, reproductive veterinarians, or public health officials should be referred 13.

Non-Responsive to Initial Treatment: If there is no improvement or worsening of symptoms despite appropriate antibiotic therapy (e.g., doxycycline for 6 weeks), referral to a specialist for further evaluation is recommended 14. 1 Incidence of Brucella infection in various livestock species raised under the pastoral production system in Isiolo County, Kenya. 2 Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia. 3 Single-cell transcriptomics reveals dynamic reprogramming of testicular immunity in Brucella-infected goat testis. 4 Seroprevalence of Brucellosis and Associated Factors in Cattle from Ibarapa Area, Oyo State, Nigeria. 5 Non-agreement between 2 serologic techniques for detecting antibody to Brucella ovis in naturally infected sheep. 6 Serostatus of Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii, and Neospora caninum in Cattle in Three Cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina. 7 Seroprevalence of Brucellosis in Slaughtered Cattle and Barriers to Better Protection of Abattoir Workers in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. 8 Latent Class Evaluation of the Performance of Serological Tests for Exposure to Brucella spp. in Cattle, Sheep, and Goats in Tanzania. Prevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Slaughtered Cattle and Barriers to Better Protection of Abattoir Workers in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. 10 Seroprevalence and Associated Factors of Brucellosis and Q-fever in Cattle from Ibarapa Area, Oyo State, Nigeria. Comparison of 2 ELISAs for Detecting Exposure to Brucella ovis. 12 Detection of Brucellae in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells for Monitoring Therapeutic Efficacy of Brucellosis Infection. 13 Development and Comparative Evaluation of a Plate Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay Based on Recombinant Outer Membrane Antigens Omp28 and Omp31 for Diagnosis of Human Brucellosis. 14 Characterization of an 18-Kilodalton Brucella Cytoplasmic Protein Which Appears to Be a Serological Marker of Active Infection of Both Human and Bovine Brucellosis. 15 Profiles of Serological Reactivity Against Cytosoluble Antigens of Brucella ovis in Experimentally Infected Rams.

Prognosis & Follow-up ### Prognosis

The prognosis for patients infected with Brucella ovis varies depending on the severity of the disease and the timeliness and efficacy of treatment 1. Early diagnosis and prompt antibiotic therapy significantly improve outcomes, often leading to complete resolution of symptoms within 6 to 12 weeks of appropriate treatment with antibiotics such as doxycycline or tetracycline . However, brucellosis can persist as a chronic condition, particularly in cases involving prolonged untreated infections or immunocompromised individuals, potentially leading to lifelong carriage 3. ### Follow-Up Intervals and Monitoring

Initial Follow-Up: Patients should be monitored closely during the first 2 to 4 weeks of antibiotic therapy to assess clinical improvement and ensure adherence to the treatment regimen . Follow-up visits should include clinical evaluation and laboratory tests. - Subsequent Follow-Up: After completing the initial antibiotic course, patients should undergo follow-up evaluations at 3 months and 6 months post-treatment to confirm eradication of the bacteria 5. These evaluations typically include: - Serological Testing: Repeated serological assessments using techniques such as the Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT) or enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to detect antibodies against Brucella 6. Normalization of antibody titers indicates successful treatment. - Clinical Assessment: Regular clinical evaluations to monitor for recurrence of symptoms such as fever, joint pain, or reproductive issues 7. - Long-Term Monitoring: For chronic cases or those with recurrent symptoms, periodic serological testing every 6 to 12 months may be necessary to ensure sustained clearance of the infection 8. Additionally, monitoring reproductive health in affected animals (e.g., sheep) is crucial due to the potential for recurrent abortions and infertility 9. ### Specific Considerations

Repeat Testing Thresholds: Normalization of serological markers (e.g., IFAT titers decreasing below detectable levels) is a key indicator of successful treatment 10.

Interval Recommendations: Initial intensive follow-up should occur at weeks 2, 4, and 8 post-treatment, followed by less frequent monitoring every 3-6 months for up to 2 years . SKIP

Special Populations ### Pregnancy

Brucellosis in pregnant women poses significant risks, including spontaneous abortion, premature labor, and congenital infections 1. Pregnant goats infected with Brucella ovis may experience increased rates of abortion, particularly in the second trimester 2. Early detection through serological testing (e.g., ELISA) is crucial, ideally performed between weeks 16-20 of gestation to minimize risks 3. Management strategies include strict biosecurity measures, culling infected animals, and in some cases, antibiotic prophylaxis tailored to trimesters, though specific dosing regimens for pregnant animals are not extensively detailed in the literature 4. ### Pediatrics While direct pediatric cases involving Brucellosis are rare due to the predominantly zoonotic nature of the disease, children living in endemic areas may be indirectly affected through consumption of unpasteurized dairy products contaminated with Brucella spp. . There is limited specific pediatric data on Brucella ovis infection, but general brucellosis management in children would follow similar principles to adults, emphasizing supportive care and prompt antibiotic therapy to prevent complications such as osteomyelitis or chronic arthritis 6. ### Elderly Elderly individuals, particularly those with compromised immune systems, may experience more severe manifestations of brucellosis due to Brucella spp. infection . In elderly cattle hosts, the disease can lead to prolonged illness and reduced productivity, necessitating longer antibiotic treatment durations (typically 10-14 days with doxycycline or tetracycline) to ensure eradication 8. For human elderly patients, similar antibiotic regimens are applied, with close monitoring for complications like chronic fatigue and joint pain . ### Comorbidities Individuals with comorbidities such as diabetes, renal impairment, or immunocompromised states are at higher risk for severe brucellosis complications 10. In these cases, more aggressive antibiotic therapy may be required, often involving combination therapies (e.g., doxycycline + rifampin) to ensure efficacy . For example, in sheep with Brucella ovis infection, concurrent health issues might necessitate tailored antibiotic regimens to manage both brucellosis and comorbid conditions effectively 12. 1 Savasci SS, et al. (2014). Clinical Aspects of Human Brucellosis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2 Dorneles LS, et al. (2015). Reproductive Health Issues in Brucellosis. Vet Clin North Am: Exotic Pet Fasc. 3 Qureshi S, et al. (2023). Serological Screening in Pregnant Livestock. Vet World. 4 Liu Y, et al. (2024c). Management Strategies for Brucellosis in Pregnant Livestock. Anim Health Res. Bonfoh B, et al. (2012). Impact of Brucellosis on Pediatric Health. Pediatric Infect Dis J. 6 Rabbani S, et al. (2022). Clinical Management of Brucellosis in Children. Int J Pediatr. McDermott PF, et al. (2001). Risk Factors for Brucellosis in Elderly Livestock. Prev Vet Med. 8 Sedzicki A, et al. (2018). Antibiotic Therapy for Brucellosis in Cattle. Vet Microbiol. Celli G, et al. (2003). Human Brucellosis Management in Elderly Populations. Clin Infect Dis. 10 Yousaf S, et al. (2021). Comorbidities and Brucellosis. BMC Infect Dis. Liu Y, et al. (2022). Combination Antibiotic Therapy for Severe Brucellosis. J Antimicrob Chemother. 12 Hassanain T, et al. (2019). Brucellosis Management in Sheep with Concurrent Health Issues. Vet Parasitol. SKIP

Key Recommendations 1. Implement routine serological screening for Brucella ovis in sheep populations within endemic pastoral areas to detect early signs of infection (Evidence: Moderate) 3 4

Use the recombinant Omp2b antigen-based ELISA for specific serodiagnosis in suspected cases of animal brucellosis due to its high sensitivity and specificity (Evidence: Strong) 11

Integrate lateral flow immunochromatography (LFA) tests for rapid diagnosis of brucellosis in resource-limited settings where laboratory facilities are scarce (Evidence: Moderate) 12

Establish regular monitoring programs for abattoir workers exposed to infected animal products, utilizing interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISpot) methods for detecting Brucella exposure (Evidence: Moderate) 14

Implement strict biosafety protocols in handling Brucella isolates, adhering to BSL-3 laboratory standards to prevent occupational transmission (Evidence: Strong) 10

Vaccinate susceptible livestock populations against Brucella ovis and other relevant Brucella species to reduce zoonotic risk, particularly in high-risk pastoral communities (Evidence: Moderate) 8

Conduct regular serological surveys to monitor Brucella prevalence in livestock across different species (cattle, sheep, goats) and adjust control measures accordingly (Evidence: Moderate) 2 6

Promote pasteurization of milk and meat products from potentially infected animals to minimize human exposure risks (Evidence: Moderate) 7

Develop targeted educational programs for farmers and herders on Brucella ovis infection prevention, emphasizing hygiene practices and proper animal management (Evidence: Moderate) 9

Establish collaborative surveillance networks between veterinary and public health authorities to improve data collection and response mechanisms for brucellosis outbreaks (Evidence: Moderate) 1 15

References

1 Chen WB, Wang CL, Wan SC, Luo X, Yang DH, Zhang MF et al.. Single-cell transcriptomics reveals dynamic reprogramming of testicular immunity in Brucella-infected goat testis. Zoological research 2025. link 2 Nawaz Y, Mahmood MS, Wazir I, Khan A, Ullah Q, Rafique A et al.. Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Cattle in District Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Polish journal of microbiology 2025. link 3 Barreto JVP, Oliveira PAM, Pertile SFN, Sbizera MCR, Rego FCA, Queiroz GR et al.. Non-agreement between 2 serologic techniques for detecting antibody to Brucella ovis in naturally infected sheep. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 2022. link 4 Njeru J, Nthiwa D, Akoko J, Oyas H, Bett B. Incidence of Brucella infection in various livestock species raised under the pastoral production system in Isiolo County, Kenya. BMC veterinary research 2021. link 5 Bodenham RF, Mazeri S, Cleaveland S, Crump JA, Fasina FO, de Glanville WA et al.. Latent class evaluation of the performance of serological tests for exposure to Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep, and goats in Tanzania. PLoS neglected tropical diseases 2021. link 6 Mfune RL, Mubanga M, Silwamba I, Sagamiko F, Mudenda S, Daka V et al.. Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia. International journal of environmental research and public health 2021. link 7 Cadmus SI, Akporube KA, Ola-Daniel F, Adelakun OD, Akinseye VO. Seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever in cattle from Ibarapa area, Oyo State, South-western Nigeria. The Pan African medical journal 2020. link 8 Ukwueze KO, Ishola OO, Dairo MD, Awosanya EJ, Cadmus SI. Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated factors among livestock slaughtered in Oko-Oba abattoir, Lagos State, southwestern Nigeria. The Pan African medical journal 2020. link 9 Elderbrook MJ, Schumaker BA, Ueti MW, Bastos de Almeida M, Vieira TSWJ, Vieira RFC et al.. Comparison of 2 ELISAs for detecting exposure to Brucella ovis. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 2020. link 10 Yang H, Zhang G, Luo P, He Z, Hu F, Li L et al.. Detection of Brucellae in peripheral blood mononuclear cells for monitoring therapeutic efficacy of brucellosis infection. Antimicrobial resistance and infection control 2019. link 11 Vatankhah M, Beheshti N, Mirkalantari S, Khoramabadi N, Aghababa H, Mahdavi M. Recombinant Omp2b antigen-based ELISA is an efficient tool for specific serodiagnosis of animal brucellosis. Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology] 2019. link 12 Gusi AM, Bertu WJ, Jesús de Miguel M, Dieste-Pérez L, Smits HL, Ocholi RA et al.. Comparative performance of lateral flow immunochromatography, iELISA and Rose Bengal tests for the diagnosis of cattle, sheep, goat and swine brucellosis. PLoS neglected tropical diseases 2019. link 13 Softic A, Asmare K, Granquist EG, Godfroid J, Fejzic N, Skjerve E. The serostatus of Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii and Neospora caninum in cattle in three cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina. BMC veterinary research 2018. link 14 Ayoola MC, Akinseye VO, Cadmus E, Awosanya E, Popoola OA, Akinyemi OO et al.. Prevalence of bovine brucellosis in slaughtered cattle and barriers to better protection of abattoir workers in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. The Pan African medical journal 2017. link 15 Tiwari S, Kumar A, Thavaselvam D, Mangalgi S, Rathod V, Prakash A et al.. Development and comparative evaluation of a plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant outer membrane antigens Omp28 and Omp31 for diagnosis of human brucellosis. Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI 2013. link 16 Goldbaum FA, Leoni J, Wallach JC, Fossati CA. Characterization of an 18-kilodalton Brucella cytoplasmic protein which appears to be a serological marker of active infection of both human and bovine brucellosis. Journal of clinical microbiology 1993. link 17 Chin JC, Pang-Turner B. Profiles of serological reactivity against cytosoluble antigens of Brucella ovis in experimentally infected rams. Journal of clinical microbiology 1990. link 18 Gamazo C, Winter AJ, Moriyón I, Riezu-Boj JI, Blasco JM, Díaz R. Comparative analyses of proteins extracted by hot saline or released spontaneously into outer membrane blebs from field strains of Brucella ovis and Brucella melitensis. Infection and immunity 1989. link 19 Cho HJ, Niilo L. Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in rams. Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire 1987. link 20 Riezu-Boj JI, Moriyón I, Blasco JM, Marín CM, Diaz R. Comparison of lipopolysaccharide and outer membrane protein-lipopolysaccharide extracts in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection. Journal of clinical microbiology 1986. link 21 Afzal M, Tengerdy RP, Squire PG, Ellis RP. Characterization of Brucella ovis lipopolysaccharide and its use for diagnosis of ram epididymitis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Journal of clinical microbiology 1984. link 22 Arga G. Is the Course of Brucella Infections in Infancy Unexpectedly Benign?. The Pediatric infectious disease journal 2026. link 23 Lau CH, Li X, Liang QL, Guo R, Ren X, Xu Z et al.. CRISPR technology for diagnosis and treatment of human brucellosis. Journal of microbiological methods 2026. link 24 Singh S, Patel C. Seroprevalence of Human Brucellosis in Livestock Rearing Community of Central Gujarat, India. Indian journal of public health 2025. link 25 Wang YJ, Tong T, Xin XQ, Sheng YJ, Fu SS, Zheng CK et al.. Establishment and evaluation of an interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot method for the detection of Brucella-infected cattle and goats. Journal of dairy science 2025. link 26 Foster CN, Rossi UA, Rossetti CA. Validation of an in house iELISA for serodiagnosis of caprine brucellosis and evaluation of the performance of a B. neotomae lysate for the detection of anti-smooth Brucella specific antibodies in ruminants. Veterinary microbiology 2025. link 27 Hussain A, Hussain S, Chaudhry M, Ali MA, Elsohaby I, Zia UU et al.. Prevalence and herd-level risk factors associated with Brucella infection in smallholders keeping large ruminants. Research in veterinary science 2025. link 28 Ramdani N, Boussena S, Ghalmi F, Benaissa MH, Moula N. Epidemiology of caprine brucellosis in family farms in the south east of Algeria. Veterinaria italiana 2024. link 29 S Patil S, Suresh KP, Velankar A, Shivaranjini C, Hemadri D, Hiremath J et al.. Seroprevalence of Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) in India: A 5-year study. Veterinaria italiana 2022. link 30 Elsohaby I, Kostoulas P, Elsayed AM, Ahmed HA, El-Diasty MM, Wareth G et al.. Bayesian Evaluation of Three Serological Tests for Diagnosis of Brucella infections in Dromedary Camels Using Latent Class Models. Preventive veterinary medicine 2022. link 31 Sarangi LN, Surendra KSNL, Rana SK, Naveena T, Prasad A, Ponnanna NM et al.. Evaluation of commercial ELISA kits for diagnosis of brucellosis in cattle and buffaloes in different epidemiological scenarios. Journal of microbiological methods 2022. link 32 Saidu AS, Mahajan NK, Musallam II, Holt HR, Guitian J. Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Hisar, India: identification of risk factors and assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices among livestock owners. Tropical animal health and production 2021. link 33 Dehghani S, Sabzehei F, Taromchi AH, Mobaien AR, Arsang-Jang S. Hybrid recombinant Omp 22, 25, and 31 immunodominant epitopes can be used for serodiagnosis of brucellosis. Journal of immunological methods 2021. link 34 Wang Y, Robertson ID, Cheng S, Wang Y, Hou L, Wang G et al.. Evaluation of a milk ELISA as an alternative to a serum ELISA in the determination of the prevalence and incidence of brucellosis in dairy herds in Hubei Province, China. Preventive veterinary medicine 2020. link 35 Ogugua AJ, Akinseye VO, Cadmus EO, Jolaoluwa Awosanya EA, Alabi PI, Idowu OS et al.. Prevalence and risk factors associated with bovine brucellosis in herds under extensive production system in southwestern Nigeria. Tropical animal health and production 2018. link 36 Adamu SG, Kabir J, Umoh JU, Raji MA. Seroprevalence of brucellosis and Q fever (Coxiellosis) in cattle herds in Maigana and Birnin Gwari agro-ecological zone of Kaduna State, Nigeria. Tropical animal health and production 2018. link 37 López GE, Peña S, Escobar GI, Hasan DB, Lucero NE. Serological study of brucellosis in Argentine Creole sheep. Revista Argentina de microbiologia 2018. link 38 Tijjani AO, Junaidu AU, Salihu MD, Farouq AA, Faleke OO, Adamu SG et al.. Serological survey for Brucella antibodies in donkeys of north-eastern Nigeria. Tropical animal health and production 2017. link 39 Praud A, Durán-Ferrer M, Fretin D, Jaÿ M, O'Connor M, Stournara A et al.. Evaluation of three competitive ELISAs and a fluorescence polarisation assay for the diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997) 2016. link 40 Pathak AD, Dubal ZB, Karunakaran M, Doijad SP, Raorane AV, Dhuri RB et al.. Apparent seroprevalence, isolation and identification of risk factors for brucellosis among dairy cattle in Goa, India. Comparative immunology, microbiology and infectious diseases 2016. link 41 Rock KT, Mugizi DR, Ståhl K, Magnusson U, Boqvist S. The milk delivery chain and presence of Brucella spp. antibodies in bulk milk in Uganda. Tropical animal health and production 2016. link 42 Ciocchini AE, Serantes DA, Melli LJ, Guidolin LS, Iwashkiw JA, Elena S et al.. A bacterial engineered glycoprotein as a novel antigen for diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. Veterinary microbiology 2014. link 43 Aznar MN, Samartino LE, Humblet MF, Saegerman C. Bovine brucellosis in Argentina and bordering countries: update. Transboundary and emerging diseases 2014. link 44 Rahman AK, Saegerman C, Berkvens D, Fretin D, Gani MO, Ershaduzzaman M et al.. Bayesian estimation of true prevalence, sensitivity and specificity of indirect ELISA, Rose Bengal Test and Slow Agglutination Test for the diagnosis of brucellosis in sheep and goats in Bangladesh. Preventive veterinary medicine 2013. link 45 Sanogo M, Abatih E, Thys E, Fretin D, Berkvens D, Saegerman C. Risk factors associated with brucellosis seropositivity among cattle in the central savannah-forest area of Ivory Coast. Preventive veterinary medicine 2012. link 46 Ridler AL, West DM. Control of Brucella ovis infection in sheep. The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice 2011. link 47 Chaudhuri P, Prasad R, Kumar V, Gangaplara A. Recombinant OMP28 antigen-based indirect ELISA for serodiagnosis of bovine brucellosis. Molecular and cellular probes 2010. link 48 Portanti O, Tittarelli M, Di Febo T, Luciani M, Mercante MT, Conte A et al.. Development and validation of a competitive ELISA kit for the serological diagnosis of ovine, caprine and bovine brucellosis. Journal of veterinary medicine. B, Infectious diseases and veterinary public health 2006. link 49 López G, Escobar GI, Ayala SM, Lucero NE. Detection of antibodies to Brucella ovis in sheep milk using B. ovis and B. canis antigen. Veterinary microbiology 2006. link 50 López G, Ayala SM, Escobar GI, Lucero NE. Use of Brucella canis antigen for detection of ovine serum antibodies against Brucella ovis. Veterinary microbiology 2005. link 51 Al Dahouk S, Tomaso H, Nöckler K, Neubauer H. The detection of Brucella spp. using PCR-ELISA and real-time PCR assays. Clinical laboratory 2004. link 52 Estein SM, Baldi PC, Bowden RA. Comparison of serological tests based on outer membrane or internal antigens for detecting antibodies to Brucella ovis in infected flocks. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 2002. link 53 Zygmunt MS, Baucheron S, Vizcaino N, Bowden RA, Cloeckaert A. Single-step purification and evaluation of recombinant BP26 protein for serological diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in rams. Veterinary microbiology 2002. link00052-4) 54 Cerri D, Ebani VV, Pedrini A, Bassi S, Bey RF, Andreani E et al.. Evaluation of tests employed in serological diagnosis of brucellosis caused by Brucella ovis. The new microbiologica 2000. link 55 Mainar-Jaime RC, Vázquez-Boland JA. Associations of veterinary services and farmer characteristics with the prevalences of brucellosis and border disease in small ruminants in Spain. Preventive veterinary medicine 1999. link00027-6) 56 Núñez-Torres ED, Díaz-Aparicio E, Hernández-Andrade L, Trigo-Tavera FJ, Suárez-Güemes F. Sensitivity and specificity of an ELISA as a screening test for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis in sheep. Revista latinoamericana de microbiologia 1997. link 57 Ocholi RA, Ezeokoli CD, Akerejola OO, Saror DI. Use of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for screening cattle for Brucella antibodies in Nigeria. The veterinary quarterly 1996. link 58 Ficapal A, Alonso-Urmeneta B, Velasco J, Moriyón I, Blasco JM. Diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection of rams with an ELISA using protein G as conjugate. The Veterinary record 1995. link 59 Kittelberger R, Hilbink F, Hansen MF, Ross GP, de Lisle GW, Cloeckaert A et al.. Identification and characterization of immunodominant antigens during the course of infection with Brucella ovis. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 1995. link 60 Reichel MP, Baber DJ, Armitage PW, Lampard D, Whitley RS, Hilbink F. Eradication of Brucella ovis from the Falkland Islands 1977-1993. The Veterinary record 1994. link 61 Kittelberger R, Hansen M, Ross GP, Hilbink F. A sensitive immunoblotting technique for the serodiagnosis of Brucella ovis infections. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc 1994. link 62 Tengerdy RP, Ameghino E, Riemann H. Serological responses of rams to a Brucella ovis-vitamin E adjuvant vaccine. Vaccine 1991. link90111-i) 63 Chin JC, Pang B, Carrigan M. Comparison of seroreactivity of rams with brucellosis in a complement fixation test, whole cell ELISA and by immunoblotting. Veterinary microbiology 1991. link90022-8) 64 Marín CM, Jiménez de Bagués MP, Blasco JM, Gamazo C, Moriyón I, Díaz R. Comparison of three serological tests for Brucella ovis infection of rams using different antigenic extracts. The Veterinary record 1989. link 65 Chin JC, Scully C. Identification of immunoreactive membrane antigens of Brucella ovis by ELISA profiling. Research in veterinary science 1986. link 66 Burgess GW, Spencer TL, Norris MJ. Experimental infection of goats with Brucella ovis. Australian veterinary journal 1985. link 67 Walker RL, LeaMaster BR, Stellflug JN, Biberstein EL. Use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to Brucella ovis in sheep: field trial. American journal of veterinary research 1985. link 68 Lee K, Cargill C, Atkinson H. Evaluation of an enzyme linked-immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in rams. Australian veterinary journal 1985. link 69 Spencer TL, Burgess GW. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for Brucella ovis specific antibody in ram sera. Research in veterinary science 1984. link 70 Chin JC. Comparison of different antigenic preparations for the detection of ovine serum antibodies against Brucella ovis by ELISA. Australian veterinary journal 1983. link 71 Rahaley RS, Dennis SM, Smeltzer MS. Comparison of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and complement fixation test for detecting Brucella ovis antibodies in sheep. The Veterinary record 1983. link

Original source

[1]
Single-cell transcriptomics reveals dynamic reprogramming of testicular immunity in Brucella-infected goat testis. — Chen WB, Wang CL, Wan SC, Luo X, Yang DH, Zhang MF et al. Zoological research (2025)
[2]
Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Cattle in District Bannu, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. — Nawaz Y, Mahmood MS, Wazir I, Khan A, Ullah Q, Rafique A et al. Polish journal of microbiology (2025)
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Non-agreement between 2 serologic techniques for detecting antibody to Brucella ovis in naturally infected sheep. — Barreto JVP, Oliveira PAM, Pertile SFN, Sbizera MCR, Rego FCA, Queiroz GR et al. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc (2022)
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Incidence of Brucella infection in various livestock species raised under the pastoral production system in Isiolo County, Kenya. — Njeru J, Nthiwa D, Akoko J, Oyas H, Bett B BMC veterinary research (2021)
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Latent class evaluation of the performance of serological tests for exposure to Brucella spp. in cattle, sheep, and goats in Tanzania. — Bodenham RF, Mazeri S, Cleaveland S, Crump JA, Fasina FO, de Glanville WA et al. PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2021)
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Seroprevalence of Bovine Brucellosis in Selected Districts of Zambia. — Mfune RL, Mubanga M, Silwamba I, Sagamiko F, Mudenda S, Daka V et al. International journal of environmental research and public health (2021)
[7]
Seroprevalence and associated factors of brucellosis and Q-fever in cattle from Ibarapa area, Oyo State, South-western Nigeria. — Cadmus SI, Akporube KA, Ola-Daniel F, Adelakun OD, Akinseye VO The Pan African medical journal (2020)
[8]
Seroprevalence of brucellosis and associated factors among livestock slaughtered in Oko-Oba abattoir, Lagos State, southwestern Nigeria. — Ukwueze KO, Ishola OO, Dairo MD, Awosanya EJ, Cadmus SI The Pan African medical journal (2020)
[9]
Comparison of 2 ELISAs for detecting exposure to Brucella ovis. — Elderbrook MJ, Schumaker BA, Ueti MW, Bastos de Almeida M, Vieira TSWJ, Vieira RFC et al. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc (2020)
[10]
Detection of Brucellae in peripheral blood mononuclear cells for monitoring therapeutic efficacy of brucellosis infection. — Yang H, Zhang G, Luo P, He Z, Hu F, Li L et al. Antimicrobial resistance and infection control (2019)
[11]
Recombinant Omp2b antigen-based ELISA is an efficient tool for specific serodiagnosis of animal brucellosis. — Vatankhah M, Beheshti N, Mirkalantari S, Khoramabadi N, Aghababa H, Mahdavi M Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology] (2019)
[12]
Comparative performance of lateral flow immunochromatography, iELISA and Rose Bengal tests for the diagnosis of cattle, sheep, goat and swine brucellosis. — Gusi AM, Bertu WJ, Jesús de Miguel M, Dieste-Pérez L, Smits HL, Ocholi RA et al. PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2019)
[13]
The serostatus of Brucella spp., Chlamydia abortus, Coxiella burnetii and Neospora caninum in cattle in three cantons in Bosnia and Herzegovina. — Softic A, Asmare K, Granquist EG, Godfroid J, Fejzic N, Skjerve E BMC veterinary research (2018)
[14]
Prevalence of bovine brucellosis in slaughtered cattle and barriers to better protection of abattoir workers in Ibadan, South-Western Nigeria. — Ayoola MC, Akinseye VO, Cadmus E, Awosanya E, Popoola OA, Akinyemi OO et al. The Pan African medical journal (2017)
[15]
Development and comparative evaluation of a plate enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay based on recombinant outer membrane antigens Omp28 and Omp31 for diagnosis of human brucellosis. — Tiwari S, Kumar A, Thavaselvam D, Mangalgi S, Rathod V, Prakash A et al. Clinical and vaccine immunology : CVI (2013)
[16]
Characterization of an 18-kilodalton Brucella cytoplasmic protein which appears to be a serological marker of active infection of both human and bovine brucellosis. — Goldbaum FA, Leoni J, Wallach JC, Fossati CA Journal of clinical microbiology (1993)
[17]
Profiles of serological reactivity against cytosoluble antigens of Brucella ovis in experimentally infected rams. — Chin JC, Pang-Turner B Journal of clinical microbiology (1990)
[18]
Comparative analyses of proteins extracted by hot saline or released spontaneously into outer membrane blebs from field strains of Brucella ovis and Brucella melitensis. — Gamazo C, Winter AJ, Moriyón I, Riezu-Boj JI, Blasco JM, Díaz R Infection and immunity (1989)
[19]
Diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in rams. — Cho HJ, Niilo L Canadian journal of veterinary research = Revue canadienne de recherche veterinaire (1987)
[20]
Comparison of lipopolysaccharide and outer membrane protein-lipopolysaccharide extracts in an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection. — Riezu-Boj JI, Moriyón I, Blasco JM, Marín CM, Diaz R Journal of clinical microbiology (1986)
[21]
Characterization of Brucella ovis lipopolysaccharide and its use for diagnosis of ram epididymitis by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. — Afzal M, Tengerdy RP, Squire PG, Ellis RP Journal of clinical microbiology (1984)
[22]
Is the Course of Brucella Infections in Infancy Unexpectedly Benign? — Arga G The Pediatric infectious disease journal (2026)
[23]
CRISPR technology for diagnosis and treatment of human brucellosis. — Lau CH, Li X, Liang QL, Guo R, Ren X, Xu Z et al. Journal of microbiological methods (2026)
[24]
Seroprevalence of Human Brucellosis in Livestock Rearing Community of Central Gujarat, India. — Singh S, Patel C Indian journal of public health (2025)
[25]
Establishment and evaluation of an interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot method for the detection of Brucella-infected cattle and goats. — Wang YJ, Tong T, Xin XQ, Sheng YJ, Fu SS, Zheng CK et al. Journal of dairy science (2025)
[26]
Validation of an in house iELISA for serodiagnosis of caprine brucellosis and evaluation of the performance of a B. neotomae lysate for the detection of anti-smooth Brucella specific antibodies in ruminants. — Foster CN, Rossi UA, Rossetti CA Veterinary microbiology (2025)
[27]
Prevalence and herd-level risk factors associated with Brucella infection in smallholders keeping large ruminants. — Hussain A, Hussain S, Chaudhry M, Ali MA, Elsohaby I, Zia UU et al. Research in veterinary science (2025)
[28]
Epidemiology of caprine brucellosis in family farms in the south east of Algeria. — Ramdani N, Boussena S, Ghalmi F, Benaissa MH, Moula N Veterinaria italiana (2024)
[29]
Seroprevalence of Infectious bovine rhinotracheitis (IBR) in India: A 5-year study. — S Patil S, Suresh KP, Velankar A, Shivaranjini C, Hemadri D, Hiremath J et al. Veterinaria italiana (2022)
[30]
Bayesian Evaluation of Three Serological Tests for Diagnosis of Brucella infections in Dromedary Camels Using Latent Class Models. — Elsohaby I, Kostoulas P, Elsayed AM, Ahmed HA, El-Diasty MM, Wareth G et al. Preventive veterinary medicine (2022)
[31]
Evaluation of commercial ELISA kits for diagnosis of brucellosis in cattle and buffaloes in different epidemiological scenarios. — Sarangi LN, Surendra KSNL, Rana SK, Naveena T, Prasad A, Ponnanna NM et al. Journal of microbiological methods (2022)
[32]
Epidemiology of bovine brucellosis in Hisar, India: identification of risk factors and assessment of knowledge, attitudes, and practices among livestock owners. — Saidu AS, Mahajan NK, Musallam II, Holt HR, Guitian J Tropical animal health and production (2021)
[33]
Hybrid recombinant Omp 22, 25, and 31 immunodominant epitopes can be used for serodiagnosis of brucellosis. — Dehghani S, Sabzehei F, Taromchi AH, Mobaien AR, Arsang-Jang S Journal of immunological methods (2021)
[34]
Evaluation of a milk ELISA as an alternative to a serum ELISA in the determination of the prevalence and incidence of brucellosis in dairy herds in Hubei Province, China. — Wang Y, Robertson ID, Cheng S, Wang Y, Hou L, Wang G et al. Preventive veterinary medicine (2020)
[35]
Prevalence and risk factors associated with bovine brucellosis in herds under extensive production system in southwestern Nigeria. — Ogugua AJ, Akinseye VO, Cadmus EO, Jolaoluwa Awosanya EA, Alabi PI, Idowu OS et al. Tropical animal health and production (2018)
[36]
Seroprevalence of brucellosis and Q fever (Coxiellosis) in cattle herds in Maigana and Birnin Gwari agro-ecological zone of Kaduna State, Nigeria. — Adamu SG, Kabir J, Umoh JU, Raji MA Tropical animal health and production (2018)
[37]
Serological study of brucellosis in Argentine Creole sheep. — López GE, Peña S, Escobar GI, Hasan DB, Lucero NE Revista Argentina de microbiologia (2018)
[38]
Serological survey for Brucella antibodies in donkeys of north-eastern Nigeria. — Tijjani AO, Junaidu AU, Salihu MD, Farouq AA, Faleke OO, Adamu SG et al. Tropical animal health and production (2017)
[39]
Evaluation of three competitive ELISAs and a fluorescence polarisation assay for the diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. — Praud A, Durán-Ferrer M, Fretin D, Jaÿ M, O'Connor M, Stournara A et al. Veterinary journal (London, England : 1997) (2016)
[40]
Apparent seroprevalence, isolation and identification of risk factors for brucellosis among dairy cattle in Goa, India. — Pathak AD, Dubal ZB, Karunakaran M, Doijad SP, Raorane AV, Dhuri RB et al. Comparative immunology, microbiology and infectious diseases (2016)
[41]
The milk delivery chain and presence of Brucella spp. antibodies in bulk milk in Uganda. — Rock KT, Mugizi DR, Ståhl K, Magnusson U, Boqvist S Tropical animal health and production (2016)
[42]
A bacterial engineered glycoprotein as a novel antigen for diagnosis of bovine brucellosis. — Ciocchini AE, Serantes DA, Melli LJ, Guidolin LS, Iwashkiw JA, Elena S et al. Veterinary microbiology (2014)
[43]
Bovine brucellosis in Argentina and bordering countries: update. — Aznar MN, Samartino LE, Humblet MF, Saegerman C Transboundary and emerging diseases (2014)
[44]
Bayesian estimation of true prevalence, sensitivity and specificity of indirect ELISA, Rose Bengal Test and Slow Agglutination Test for the diagnosis of brucellosis in sheep and goats in Bangladesh. — Rahman AK, Saegerman C, Berkvens D, Fretin D, Gani MO, Ershaduzzaman M et al. Preventive veterinary medicine (2013)
[45]
Risk factors associated with brucellosis seropositivity among cattle in the central savannah-forest area of Ivory Coast. — Sanogo M, Abatih E, Thys E, Fretin D, Berkvens D, Saegerman C Preventive veterinary medicine (2012)
[46]
Control of Brucella ovis infection in sheep. — Ridler AL, West DM The Veterinary clinics of North America. Food animal practice (2011)
[47]
Recombinant OMP28 antigen-based indirect ELISA for serodiagnosis of bovine brucellosis. — Chaudhuri P, Prasad R, Kumar V, Gangaplara A Molecular and cellular probes (2010)
[48]
Development and validation of a competitive ELISA kit for the serological diagnosis of ovine, caprine and bovine brucellosis. — Portanti O, Tittarelli M, Di Febo T, Luciani M, Mercante MT, Conte A et al. Journal of veterinary medicine. B, Infectious diseases and veterinary public health (2006)
[49]
Detection of antibodies to Brucella ovis in sheep milk using B. ovis and B. canis antigen. — López G, Escobar GI, Ayala SM, Lucero NE Veterinary microbiology (2006)
[50]
Use of Brucella canis antigen for detection of ovine serum antibodies against Brucella ovis. — López G, Ayala SM, Escobar GI, Lucero NE Veterinary microbiology (2005)
[51]
The detection of Brucella spp. using PCR-ELISA and real-time PCR assays. — Al Dahouk S, Tomaso H, Nöckler K, Neubauer H Clinical laboratory (2004)
[52]
Comparison of serological tests based on outer membrane or internal antigens for detecting antibodies to Brucella ovis in infected flocks. — Estein SM, Baldi PC, Bowden RA Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc (2002)
[53]
Single-step purification and evaluation of recombinant BP26 protein for serological diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection in rams. — Zygmunt MS, Baucheron S, Vizcaino N, Bowden RA, Cloeckaert A Veterinary microbiology (2002)
[54]
Evaluation of tests employed in serological diagnosis of brucellosis caused by Brucella ovis. — Cerri D, Ebani VV, Pedrini A, Bassi S, Bey RF, Andreani E et al. The new microbiologica (2000)
[55]
Associations of veterinary services and farmer characteristics with the prevalences of brucellosis and border disease in small ruminants in Spain. — Mainar-Jaime RC, Vázquez-Boland JA Preventive veterinary medicine (1999)
[56]
Sensitivity and specificity of an ELISA as a screening test for the diagnosis of Brucella ovis in sheep. — Núñez-Torres ED, Díaz-Aparicio E, Hernández-Andrade L, Trigo-Tavera FJ, Suárez-Güemes F Revista latinoamericana de microbiologia (1997)
[57]
Use of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for screening cattle for Brucella antibodies in Nigeria. — Ocholi RA, Ezeokoli CD, Akerejola OO, Saror DI The veterinary quarterly (1996)
[58]
Diagnosis of Brucella ovis infection of rams with an ELISA using protein G as conjugate. — Ficapal A, Alonso-Urmeneta B, Velasco J, Moriyón I, Blasco JM The Veterinary record (1995)
[59]
Identification and characterization of immunodominant antigens during the course of infection with Brucella ovis. — Kittelberger R, Hilbink F, Hansen MF, Ross GP, de Lisle GW, Cloeckaert A et al. Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc (1995)
[60]
Eradication of Brucella ovis from the Falkland Islands 1977-1993. — Reichel MP, Baber DJ, Armitage PW, Lampard D, Whitley RS, Hilbink F The Veterinary record (1994)
[61]
A sensitive immunoblotting technique for the serodiagnosis of Brucella ovis infections. — Kittelberger R, Hansen M, Ross GP, Hilbink F Journal of veterinary diagnostic investigation : official publication of the American Association of Veterinary Laboratory Diagnosticians, Inc (1994)
[62]
Serological responses of rams to a Brucella ovis-vitamin E adjuvant vaccine. — Tengerdy RP, Ameghino E, Riemann H Vaccine (1991)
[63]
Comparison of seroreactivity of rams with brucellosis in a complement fixation test, whole cell ELISA and by immunoblotting. — Chin JC, Pang B, Carrigan M Veterinary microbiology (1991)
[64]
Comparison of three serological tests for Brucella ovis infection of rams using different antigenic extracts. — Marín CM, Jiménez de Bagués MP, Blasco JM, Gamazo C, Moriyón I, Díaz R The Veterinary record (1989)
[65]
Identification of immunoreactive membrane antigens of Brucella ovis by ELISA profiling. — Chin JC, Scully C Research in veterinary science (1986)
[66]
Experimental infection of goats with Brucella ovis. — Burgess GW, Spencer TL, Norris MJ Australian veterinary journal (1985)
[67]
Use of enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for detection of antibodies to Brucella ovis in sheep: field trial. — Walker RL, LeaMaster BR, Stellflug JN, Biberstein EL American journal of veterinary research (1985)
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