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Infectious Disease775 papers

Surgical site infection

Last edited: 4/13/2026

Overview

Surgical site infections (SSIs) are a significant postoperative complication leading to increased morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs. They occur at the site of surgical incisions and can be influenced by various factors including surgical technique, patient-specific risks, and prophylactic measures. 1 4 27

Diagnosis

Clinical signs include redness, swelling, pain, and purulent drainage at the incision site.

Cultures from wound drainage or tissue samples may identify pathogens.

Imaging or other diagnostic tests may be needed to assess extent of infection. 4 27

Management

Antibiotic Prophylaxis: Administer prophylactic antibiotics within 60 minutes before incision, tailored to surgical site classification and local resistance patterns. 6 27 39

Wound Care: Use of negative pressure wound therapy (NPWT) in high-risk wounds may reduce infection rates. 25

Intraoperative Measures: Ensure meticulous surgical technique, appropriate sterilization, and optimal patient positioning. 9 34

Postoperative Monitoring: Regular wound inspection and early detection of signs of infection for prompt intervention. 21

Special Populations

Pregnancy: Prophylactic antibiotics should be selected carefully to avoid fetal toxicity; povidone-iodine application post-closure shows promise in cesarean sections. 5

Elderly: Higher risk of SSIs due to comorbidities; tailored prophylactic strategies and vigilant monitoring are crucial. 77

Comorbidities: Patients with diabetes, obesity, and immunocompromised states require intensified preventive measures. 8 30

Key Recommendations

Administer prophylactic antibiotics within the first hour before surgery to reduce SSI risk. (Evidence: Strong 6 39)

Implement a comprehensive care bundle for emergency general surgery that includes optimal antibiotic use, sterile technique, and postoperative monitoring. (Evidence: Moderate 3)

Consider negative pressure wound therapy for high-risk surgical wounds to decrease infection rates. (Evidence: Moderate 25)

Optimize hand hygiene protocols and consider advanced techniques like ATP fluorescence monitoring to enhance aseptic practices. (Evidence: Moderate 15)

Tailor antibiotic prophylaxis based on surgical site classification and local antimicrobial resistance patterns. (Evidence: Moderate 6)

References

1 Thure L, Otoki K, Parker AS, Parker RK. Time of Day Impacts Surgical Site Infection in Emergency Gastrointestinal Surgery in Kenya. World journal of surgery 2026. link 2 Bagin SV, Ellis CN, Sorfazian A, Mosavat D, Lantis JC, Cosentino G et al.. The Effect of Intraoperative Use of Intact Fish Skin Grafts for High-Risk Patients With Class 3 and Class 4 Wounds Who Undergo Urgent/Emergent Abdominal Surgery. The American surgeon 2025. link 3 Isand KG, Saar S, Bahhir A, Graumann K, Kibuspuu L, Meier MA et al.. A Care Bundle to Prevent Surgical Site Infections in Emergency General Surgery: A Prospective Cohort Study. World journal of surgery 2025. link 4 Adali M. Surgical site infections following emergency abdominal surgery: a prospective cohort study. African health sciences 2025. link 5 Thaisriwong C, Chaithongwongwatthana S. A randomized controlled trial of povidone-iodine application after skin closure for prevention of surgical site infection in emergency cesarean section. International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics 2025. link 6 Tang XF, Bin X, Qu KY, Liu HJ, Lei H, Li WF et al.. Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical wound infections in clean and clean-contaminated surgery: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of surgery (London, England) 2024. link 7 McKesey J, Mazhar M, Alam M, Srivastava D, Nijhawan RI. Incidence of Bacteremia, Infective Endocarditis, or Prosthetic Joint Infection in Dermatologic Surgery: A Systematic Review. Dermatologic surgery : official publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery [et al.] 2024. link 8 Yang Z, Wang D, Yang M, Deng J, Liu Y. Risk factors for surgical site infection in patients undergoing obstetrics and gynecology surgeries: A meta-analysis of observational studies. PloS one 2024. link 9 Gerasimov M, Lin DM, Munnur U, Donnelly M. Preventing perioperative infections: a call to action for anesthesiologists. Current opinion in anaesthesiology 2024. link 10 Dexter F, Walker KM, Brindeiro CT, Loftus CP, Banguid CCL, Loftus RW. A threshold of 100 or more colony-forming units on the anesthesia machine predicts bacterial pathogen detection: a retrospective laboratory-based analysis. Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie 2024. link 11 Wang B, Li S, Zhang J, Wu D, Huang X, Liu D et al.. Intrawound vancomycin powder in orthopaedic surgery as surgical site wound infection prophylaxis: A meta-analysis. International wound journal 2023. link 12 Klifto KM, Rydz AC, Biswas S, Hultman CS, Erdmann D, Phillips BT. Evidence-Based Medicine: Systemic Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Prevention of Surgical-Site Infections in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. Plastic and reconstructive surgery 2023. link 13 Martinez-Sobalvarro JV, Júnior AAP, Pereira LB, Baldoni AO, Ceron CS, Dos Reis TM. Antimicrobial stewardship for surgical antibiotic prophylaxis and surgical site infections: a systematic review. International journal of clinical pharmacy 2022. link 14 Singh P, Gothwal M, Pradhan HK, Yadav G, Gupta MK. Skin preparation for prevention of surgical site infection after obstetrics and gynecological abdominal surgery: A quality improvement project. The journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research 2022. link 15 Chen X, Wang T, Li Q, Cheng L, Xie Z, Xu J et al.. Comparison of Improved Surgical Eight-Step Handwashing Combined with ATP Fluorescence in Detecting the Infection Rate at the Site of Seven-Step Surgical Handwashing and 30-Day Orthopaedic Surgery: A Randomized Study. Scanning 2022. link 16 Turcotte JJ, Boord A, Antognoli L, Klune JR, Feather CB. Does Wound Management Technique Impact Surgical Site Infection in Open Emergency Colon Procedures?. The American surgeon 2022. link 17 Abbott C, Grout E, Morris T, Brown HL. Cutibacterium acnes biofilm forming clinical isolates modify the formation and structure of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms, increasing their susceptibility to antibiotics. Anaerobe 2022. link 18 Tsikopoulos K, Sidiropoulos K, Kitridis D, Moulder E, Ahmadi M, Drago L et al.. Preventing Staphylococcus aureus stainless steel-associated infections in orthopedics. A systematic review and meta-analysis of animal literature. Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society 2021. link 19 Schwartzman G, Khachemoune A. Surgical Site Infection After Dermatologic Procedures: Critical Reassessment of Risk Factors and Reappraisal of Rates and Causes. American journal of clinical dermatology 2021. link 20 Nakase K, Koizumi J, Midorikawa R, Yamasaki K, Tsutsui M, Aoki S et al.. Cutibacterium acnes phylogenetic type IC and II isolated from patients with non-acne diseases exhibit high-level biofilm formation. International journal of medical microbiology : IJMM 2021. link 21 Bolton L. Measured Wound Outcome Feedback Improves Surgical Site Infection Rates. Wounds : a compendium of clinical research and practice 2021. link 22 Lam PW, Tarighi P, Elligsen M, Nathens AB, Riegert D, Tarshis J et al.. Impact of the Allergy Clarification for Cefazolin Evidence-based Prescribing Tool on Receipt of Preferred Perioperative Prophylaxis: An Interrupted Time Series Study. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America 2020. link 23 Isaacson G, Doyle W, Summer D. Reducing Surgical Site Infections During Otolaryngology Surgical Missions. The Laryngoscope 2020. link 24 Sawadogo YA, Komboigo E, Kiemtore S, Zamane H, Ouedraogo I, Kain DP et al.. [Parietal suppurations after cesarean section at the Yalgado Ouédraogo University Hospital, Burkina Faso: epidemiological clinical, therapeutic and prognostic aspects]. The Pan African medical journal 2019. link 25 Hall C, Regner J, Abernathy S, Isbell C, Isbell T, Kurek S et al.. Surgical Site Infection after Primary Closure of High-Risk Surgical Wounds in Emergency General Surgery Laparotomy and Closed Negative-Pressure Wound Therapy. Journal of the American College of Surgeons 2019. link 26 Hollands M, Macintyre I, Richardson A. George Hogarth Pringle and the mystery of the first antiseptic operation in Australia. ANZ journal of surgery 2019. link 27 . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 195: Prevention of Infection After Gynecologic Procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology 2018. link 28 . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 195 Summary: Prevention of Infection After Gynecologic Procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology 2018. link 29 El-Achi V, Wan KM, Brown J, Marshall D, McGee T. Readmissions for surgical site infections following caesarean section. The Australian & New Zealand journal of obstetrics & gynaecology 2018. link 30 Silvestri M, Dobrinja C, Scomersi S, Giudici F, Turoldo A, Princic E et al.. Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for surgical site infection after colorectal surgery: a single-center experience. Surgery today 2018. link 31 El-Kholy AA, Elanany MG, Sherif MM, Gad MA. High Prevalence of VIM, KPC, and NDM Expression among Surgical Site Infection Pathogens in Patients Having Emergency Surgery. Surgical infections 2018. link 32 Nakase K, Fukushima H, Yukawa T, Nakaminami H, Fujii T, Noguchi N. Propionibacterium acnes Has Low Susceptibility to Chlorhexidine Digluconate. Surgical infections 2018. link 33 Maizels M, Liu D, Yerkes E, Meade P, Biondi M, Sutherland R. Improving surgical training by identifying the most common feedback trainees receive for index cases. Journal of pediatric urology 2018. link 34 Perry KI, Hanssen AD. Orthopaedic Infection: Prevention and Diagnosis. The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons 2017. link 35 Firoozabadi R, Miranda S, Tornetta P. Technique for Placement of Peri-Implant Antibiotics Using Antibiotic Putty. Journal of orthopaedic trauma 2017. link 36 Sehjal R, Bakti N, Goddard R. Effect of an anaesthetic screening drape on vertical laminar airflow. The Journal of hospital infection 2017. link 37 Wenk M, Van Aken H, Zarbock A. The New World Health Organization Recommendations on Perioperative Administration of Oxygen to Prevent Surgical Site Infections: A Dangerous Reductionist Approach?. Anesthesia and analgesia 2017. link 38 Garner BH, Anderson DJ. Surgical Site Infections: An Update. Infectious disease clinics of North America 2016. link 39 Gordon RJ. Administration of parenteral prophylactic beta-lactam antibiotics in 2014: a review. Anesthesia and analgesia 2015. link 40 Diaz V, Newman J. Surgical site infection and prevention guidelines: a primer for Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists. AANA journal 2015. link 41 Loftus RW, Koff MD, Brown JR, Patel HM, Jensen JT, Reddy S et al.. The epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus transmission in the anesthesia work area. Anesthesia and analgesia 2015. link 42 Hee HI, Lee S, Chia SN, Lu QS, Liew AP, Ng A. Bacterial contamination of surgical scrub suits worn outside the operating theatre: a randomised crossover study. Anaesthesia 2014. link 43 Lobley SN. Factors affecting the risk surgical site infection and methods of reducing. Journal of perioperative practice 2013. link 44 Alagbe-Briggs OT, Onajin Obembe BO. A survey on selection and administration of perioperative antibiotics by anaesthetists. West African journal of medicine 2013. link 45 Forbes SS, McLean RF. Review article: the anesthesiologist's role in the prevention of surgical site infections. Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie 2013. link 46 Raghunathan K, Connelly NR, Friderici J, Naglieri-Prescod D, Joyce R, Prasanna P et al.. Unwarranted variability in antibiotic prophylaxis for cesarean section delivery: a national survey of anesthesiologists. Anesthesia and analgesia 2013. link 47 Horasan ES, Dağ A, Ersoz G, Kaya A. Surgical site infections and mortality in elderly patients. Medecine et maladies infectieuses 2013. link 48 Schwulst SJ, Mazuski JE. Surgical prophylaxis and other complication avoidance care bundles. The Surgical clinics of North America 2012. link 49 Anderson DJ. Surgical site infections. Infectious disease clinics of North America 2011. link 50 Eisen DB. Surgeon's garb and infection control: what's the evidence?. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2011. link 51 Portigliatti Barbos M, Mognetti B, Pecoraro S, Picco W, Veglio V. Decolonization of orthopedic surgical team S. aureus carriers: impact on surgical-site infections. Journal of orthopaedics and traumatology : official journal of the Italian Society of Orthopaedics and Traumatology 2010. link 52 Nair BG, Newman SF, Peterson GN, Wu WY, Schwid HA. Feedback mechanisms including real-time electronic alerts to achieve near 100% timely prophylactic antibiotic administration in surgical cases. Anesthesia and analgesia 2010. link 53 Ferreira FA, Marin ML, Strabelli TM, Carmona MJ. Ways the anesthesiologist can contribute to the prophylaxis of infection in the surgical patient. Revista brasileira de anestesiologia 2009. link70102-3) 54 Wright TI, Baddour LM, Berbari EF, Roenigk RK, Phillips PK, Jacobs MA et al.. Antibiotic prophylaxis in dermatologic surgery: advisory statement 2008. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology 2008. link 55 Al-Allak A, Sarasin S, Key S, Morris-Stiff G. Wedding rings are not a significant source of bacterial contamination following surgical scrubbing. Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England 2008. link 56 Davis PJ, Spady D, Forgie SE. A survey of Alberta physicians' use of and attitudes toward face masks and face shields in the operating room setting. American journal of infection control 2007. link 57 . ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 74. Antibiotic prophylaxis for gynecologic procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology 2006. link 58 . 44 hospitals cut surgical site infections by 27%. Performance improvement advisor 2006. link 59 O'Reilly M, Talsma A, VanRiper S, Kheterpal S, Burney R. An anesthesia information system designed to provide physician-specific feedback improves timely administration of prophylactic antibiotics. Anesthesia and analgesia 2006. link 60 Warters RD, Szmuk P, Pivalizza EG, Gebhard RE, Katz J, Ezri T. The role of anesthesiologists in the selection and administration of perioperative antibiotics: a survey of the American Association of Clinical Directors. Anesthesia and analgesia 2006. link 61 Tan JA, Naik VN, Lingard L. Exploring obstacles to proper timing of prophylactic antibiotics for surgical site infections. Quality & safety in health care 2006. link 62 Plonczynski DJ. Wise use of perioperative antibiotics. AORN journal 2005. link60391-8) 63 de Werra C, Donzelli I, Tramontano S, Perone M, Forestieri P. Peroperative control of surgical infections. Acta bio-medica : Atenei Parmensis 2005. link 64 Griffin FA. Best-practice protocols: Preventing surgical site infection. Nursing management 2005. link 65 Hirsemann S, Sohr D, Gastmeier K, Gastmeier P. Risk factors for surgical site infections in a free-standing outpatient setting. American journal of infection control 2005. link 66 Mlangeni D, Babikir R, Dettenkofer M, Daschner F, Gastmeier P, Rüden H. AMBU-KISS: quality control in ambulatory surgery. American journal of infection control 2005. link 67 . Antibacterial prophylaxis in surgery: 2--Urogenital, obstetric and gynaecological surgery. Drug and therapeutics bulletin 2004. link 68 Nichols RL. Preventing surgical site infections. Clinical medicine & research 2004. link 69 . Antibacterial prophylaxis in surgery: 1--Gastrointestinal and biliary surgery. Drug and therapeutics bulletin 2003. link 70 Allen G. Maximizing nurses' advocacy role to improve patient outcomes. AORN journal 2000. link61553-6) 71 Cainzos MA. Antibiotic prophylaxis. New horizons (Baltimore, Md.) 1998. link 72 Yap KP, Tan ML, Tan CE. Survey of aerobic bacterial infections in paediatric surgical intensive care unit patients. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore 1998. link 73 Kaatz B. Antibiotics before surgery. South Dakota journal of medicine 1996. link 74 Cerra FB, Maddaus MA, Dunn DL, Wells CL, Konstantinides NN, Lehmann SL et al.. Selective gut decontamination reduces nosocomial infections and length of stay but not mortality or organ failure in surgical intensive care unit patients. Archives of surgery (Chicago, Ill. : 1960) 1992. link 75 Garibaldi RA, Cushing D, Lerer T. Predictors of intraoperative-acquired surgical wound infections. The Journal of hospital infection 1991. link90035-7) 76 Collier C, Miller DP, Borst M. Community hospital surgeon-specific infection rates. Infection control : IC 1987. link 77 DiPiro JT, Cheung RP, Bowden TA, Mansberger JA. Single dose systemic antibiotic prophylaxis of surgical wound infections. American journal of surgery 1986. link90228-x) 78 Levinson W. Preoperative evaluations by an internist--are they worthwhile?. The Western journal of medicine 1984. link 79 Howorth FH. Air flow patterns in the operating theatre. Engineering in medicine 1980. link

Original source

[1]
Time of Day Impacts Surgical Site Infection in Emergency Gastrointestinal Surgery in Kenya. — Thure L, Otoki K, Parker AS, Parker RK World journal of surgery (2026)
[2]
The Effect of Intraoperative Use of Intact Fish Skin Grafts for High-Risk Patients With Class 3 and Class 4 Wounds Who Undergo Urgent/Emergent Abdominal Surgery. — Bagin SV, Ellis CN, Sorfazian A, Mosavat D, Lantis JC, Cosentino G et al. The American surgeon (2025)
[3]
A Care Bundle to Prevent Surgical Site Infections in Emergency General Surgery: A Prospective Cohort Study. — Isand KG, Saar S, Bahhir A, Graumann K, Kibuspuu L, Meier MA et al. World journal of surgery (2025)
[4]
Surgical site infections following emergency abdominal surgery: a prospective cohort study. — Adali M African health sciences (2025)
[5]
A randomized controlled trial of povidone-iodine application after skin closure for prevention of surgical site infection in emergency cesarean section. — Thaisriwong C, Chaithongwongwatthana S International journal of gynaecology and obstetrics: the official organ of the International Federation of Gynaecology and Obstetrics (2025)
[6]
Antibiotic prophylaxis for surgical wound infections in clean and clean-contaminated surgery: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. — Tang XF, Bin X, Qu KY, Liu HJ, Lei H, Li WF et al. International journal of surgery (London, England) (2024)
[7]
Incidence of Bacteremia, Infective Endocarditis, or Prosthetic Joint Infection in Dermatologic Surgery: A Systematic Review. — McKesey J, Mazhar M, Alam M, Srivastava D, Nijhawan RI Dermatologic surgery : official publication for American Society for Dermatologic Surgery [et al.] (2024)
[8]
Risk factors for surgical site infection in patients undergoing obstetrics and gynecology surgeries: A meta-analysis of observational studies. — Yang Z, Wang D, Yang M, Deng J, Liu Y PloS one (2024)
[9]
Preventing perioperative infections: a call to action for anesthesiologists. — Gerasimov M, Lin DM, Munnur U, Donnelly M Current opinion in anaesthesiology (2024)
[10]
A threshold of 100 or more colony-forming units on the anesthesia machine predicts bacterial pathogen detection: a retrospective laboratory-based analysis. — Dexter F, Walker KM, Brindeiro CT, Loftus CP, Banguid CCL, Loftus RW Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie (2024)
[11]
Intrawound vancomycin powder in orthopaedic surgery as surgical site wound infection prophylaxis: A meta-analysis. — Wang B, Li S, Zhang J, Wu D, Huang X, Liu D et al. International wound journal (2023)
[12]
Evidence-Based Medicine: Systemic Perioperative Antibiotic Prophylaxis for Prevention of Surgical-Site Infections in Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. — Klifto KM, Rydz AC, Biswas S, Hultman CS, Erdmann D, Phillips BT Plastic and reconstructive surgery (2023)
[13]
Antimicrobial stewardship for surgical antibiotic prophylaxis and surgical site infections: a systematic review. — Martinez-Sobalvarro JV, Júnior AAP, Pereira LB, Baldoni AO, Ceron CS, Dos Reis TM International journal of clinical pharmacy (2022)
[14]
Skin preparation for prevention of surgical site infection after obstetrics and gynecological abdominal surgery: A quality improvement project. — Singh P, Gothwal M, Pradhan HK, Yadav G, Gupta MK The journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research (2022)
[15]
Comparison of Improved Surgical Eight-Step Handwashing Combined with ATP Fluorescence in Detecting the Infection Rate at the Site of Seven-Step Surgical Handwashing and 30-Day Orthopaedic Surgery: A Randomized Study. — Chen X, Wang T, Li Q, Cheng L, Xie Z, Xu J et al. Scanning (2022)
[16]
Does Wound Management Technique Impact Surgical Site Infection in Open Emergency Colon Procedures? — Turcotte JJ, Boord A, Antognoli L, Klune JR, Feather CB The American surgeon (2022)
[17]
Cutibacterium acnes biofilm forming clinical isolates modify the formation and structure of Staphylococcus aureus biofilms, increasing their susceptibility to antibiotics. — Abbott C, Grout E, Morris T, Brown HL Anaerobe (2022)
[18]
Preventing Staphylococcus aureus stainless steel-associated infections in orthopedics. A systematic review and meta-analysis of animal literature. — Tsikopoulos K, Sidiropoulos K, Kitridis D, Moulder E, Ahmadi M, Drago L et al. Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society (2021)
[19]
Surgical Site Infection After Dermatologic Procedures: Critical Reassessment of Risk Factors and Reappraisal of Rates and Causes. — Schwartzman G, Khachemoune A American journal of clinical dermatology (2021)
[20]
Cutibacterium acnes phylogenetic type IC and II isolated from patients with non-acne diseases exhibit high-level biofilm formation. — Nakase K, Koizumi J, Midorikawa R, Yamasaki K, Tsutsui M, Aoki S et al. International journal of medical microbiology : IJMM (2021)
[21]
Measured Wound Outcome Feedback Improves Surgical Site Infection Rates. — Bolton L Wounds : a compendium of clinical research and practice (2021)
[22]
Impact of the Allergy Clarification for Cefazolin Evidence-based Prescribing Tool on Receipt of Preferred Perioperative Prophylaxis: An Interrupted Time Series Study. — Lam PW, Tarighi P, Elligsen M, Nathens AB, Riegert D, Tarshis J et al. Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2020)
[23]
Reducing Surgical Site Infections During Otolaryngology Surgical Missions. — Isaacson G, Doyle W, Summer D The Laryngoscope (2020)
[24]
[Parietal suppurations after cesarean section at the Yalgado Ouédraogo University Hospital, Burkina Faso: epidemiological clinical, therapeutic and prognostic aspects]. — Sawadogo YA, Komboigo E, Kiemtore S, Zamane H, Ouedraogo I, Kain DP et al. The Pan African medical journal (2019)
[25]
Surgical Site Infection after Primary Closure of High-Risk Surgical Wounds in Emergency General Surgery Laparotomy and Closed Negative-Pressure Wound Therapy. — Hall C, Regner J, Abernathy S, Isbell C, Isbell T, Kurek S et al. Journal of the American College of Surgeons (2019)
[26]
George Hogarth Pringle and the mystery of the first antiseptic operation in Australia. — Hollands M, Macintyre I, Richardson A ANZ journal of surgery (2019)
[27]
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 195: Prevention of Infection After Gynecologic Procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology (2018)
[28]
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 195 Summary: Prevention of Infection After Gynecologic Procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology (2018)
[29]
Readmissions for surgical site infections following caesarean section. — El-Achi V, Wan KM, Brown J, Marshall D, McGee T The Australian & New Zealand journal of obstetrics & gynaecology (2018)
[30]
Modifiable and non-modifiable risk factors for surgical site infection after colorectal surgery: a single-center experience. — Silvestri M, Dobrinja C, Scomersi S, Giudici F, Turoldo A, Princic E et al. Surgery today (2018)
[31]
High Prevalence of VIM, KPC, and NDM Expression among Surgical Site Infection Pathogens in Patients Having Emergency Surgery. — El-Kholy AA, Elanany MG, Sherif MM, Gad MA Surgical infections (2018)
[32]
Propionibacterium acnes Has Low Susceptibility to Chlorhexidine Digluconate. — Nakase K, Fukushima H, Yukawa T, Nakaminami H, Fujii T, Noguchi N Surgical infections (2018)
[33]
Improving surgical training by identifying the most common feedback trainees receive for index cases. — Maizels M, Liu D, Yerkes E, Meade P, Biondi M, Sutherland R Journal of pediatric urology (2018)
[34]
Orthopaedic Infection: Prevention and Diagnosis. — Perry KI, Hanssen AD The Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (2017)
[35]
Technique for Placement of Peri-Implant Antibiotics Using Antibiotic Putty. — Firoozabadi R, Miranda S, Tornetta P Journal of orthopaedic trauma (2017)
[36]
Effect of an anaesthetic screening drape on vertical laminar airflow. — Sehjal R, Bakti N, Goddard R The Journal of hospital infection (2017)
[37]
The New World Health Organization Recommendations on Perioperative Administration of Oxygen to Prevent Surgical Site Infections: A Dangerous Reductionist Approach? — Wenk M, Van Aken H, Zarbock A Anesthesia and analgesia (2017)
[38]
Surgical Site Infections: An Update. — Garner BH, Anderson DJ Infectious disease clinics of North America (2016)
[39]
Administration of parenteral prophylactic beta-lactam antibiotics in 2014: a review. — Gordon RJ Anesthesia and analgesia (2015)
[40]
Surgical site infection and prevention guidelines: a primer for Certified Registered Nurse Anesthetists. — Diaz V, Newman J AANA journal (2015)
[41]
The epidemiology of Staphylococcus aureus transmission in the anesthesia work area. — Loftus RW, Koff MD, Brown JR, Patel HM, Jensen JT, Reddy S et al. Anesthesia and analgesia (2015)
[42]
Bacterial contamination of surgical scrub suits worn outside the operating theatre: a randomised crossover study. — Hee HI, Lee S, Chia SN, Lu QS, Liew AP, Ng A Anaesthesia (2014)
[43]
Factors affecting the risk surgical site infection and methods of reducing. — Lobley SN Journal of perioperative practice (2013)
[44]
A survey on selection and administration of perioperative antibiotics by anaesthetists. — Alagbe-Briggs OT, Onajin Obembe BO West African journal of medicine (2013)
[45]
Review article: the anesthesiologist's role in the prevention of surgical site infections. — Forbes SS, McLean RF Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie (2013)
[46]
Unwarranted variability in antibiotic prophylaxis for cesarean section delivery: a national survey of anesthesiologists. — Raghunathan K, Connelly NR, Friderici J, Naglieri-Prescod D, Joyce R, Prasanna P et al. Anesthesia and analgesia (2013)
[47]
Surgical site infections and mortality in elderly patients. — Horasan ES, Dağ A, Ersoz G, Kaya A Medecine et maladies infectieuses (2013)
[48]
Surgical prophylaxis and other complication avoidance care bundles. — Schwulst SJ, Mazuski JE The Surgical clinics of North America (2012)
[49]
Surgical site infections. — Anderson DJ Infectious disease clinics of North America (2011)
[50]
Surgeon's garb and infection control: what's the evidence? — Eisen DB Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (2011)
[51]
Decolonization of orthopedic surgical team S. aureus carriers: impact on surgical-site infections. — Portigliatti Barbos M, Mognetti B, Pecoraro S, Picco W, Veglio V Journal of orthopaedics and traumatology : official journal of the Italian Society of Orthopaedics and Traumatology (2010)
[52]
Feedback mechanisms including real-time electronic alerts to achieve near 100% timely prophylactic antibiotic administration in surgical cases. — Nair BG, Newman SF, Peterson GN, Wu WY, Schwid HA Anesthesia and analgesia (2010)
[53]
Ways the anesthesiologist can contribute to the prophylaxis of infection in the surgical patient. — Ferreira FA, Marin ML, Strabelli TM, Carmona MJ Revista brasileira de anestesiologia (2009)
[54]
Antibiotic prophylaxis in dermatologic surgery: advisory statement 2008. — Wright TI, Baddour LM, Berbari EF, Roenigk RK, Phillips PK, Jacobs MA et al. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology (2008)
[55]
Wedding rings are not a significant source of bacterial contamination following surgical scrubbing. — Al-Allak A, Sarasin S, Key S, Morris-Stiff G Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (2008)
[56]
A survey of Alberta physicians' use of and attitudes toward face masks and face shields in the operating room setting. — Davis PJ, Spady D, Forgie SE American journal of infection control (2007)
[57]
ACOG Practice Bulletin No. 74. Antibiotic prophylaxis for gynecologic procedures. Obstetrics and gynecology (2006)
[58]
44 hospitals cut surgical site infections by 27%. Performance improvement advisor (2006)
[59]
An anesthesia information system designed to provide physician-specific feedback improves timely administration of prophylactic antibiotics. — O'Reilly M, Talsma A, VanRiper S, Kheterpal S, Burney R Anesthesia and analgesia (2006)
[60]
The role of anesthesiologists in the selection and administration of perioperative antibiotics: a survey of the American Association of Clinical Directors. — Warters RD, Szmuk P, Pivalizza EG, Gebhard RE, Katz J, Ezri T Anesthesia and analgesia (2006)
[61]
Exploring obstacles to proper timing of prophylactic antibiotics for surgical site infections. — Tan JA, Naik VN, Lingard L Quality & safety in health care (2006)
[62]
Wise use of perioperative antibiotics. — Plonczynski DJ AORN journal (2005)
[63]
Peroperative control of surgical infections. — de Werra C, Donzelli I, Tramontano S, Perone M, Forestieri P Acta bio-medica : Atenei Parmensis (2005)
[64]
Best-practice protocols: Preventing surgical site infection. — Griffin FA Nursing management (2005)
[65]
Risk factors for surgical site infections in a free-standing outpatient setting. — Hirsemann S, Sohr D, Gastmeier K, Gastmeier P American journal of infection control (2005)
[66]
AMBU-KISS: quality control in ambulatory surgery. — Mlangeni D, Babikir R, Dettenkofer M, Daschner F, Gastmeier P, Rüden H American journal of infection control (2005)
[67]
Antibacterial prophylaxis in surgery: 2--Urogenital, obstetric and gynaecological surgery. Drug and therapeutics bulletin (2004)
[68]
Preventing surgical site infections. — Nichols RL Clinical medicine & research (2004)
[69]
Antibacterial prophylaxis in surgery: 1--Gastrointestinal and biliary surgery. Drug and therapeutics bulletin (2003)
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