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Cardiology335 papers

Sinus node dysfunction

Last edited: 4/23/2026

Overview

Sinus node dysfunction (SND) involves impaired impulse generation or conduction from the sinoatrial (SA) node, leading to bradycardia and potential hemodynamic instability 1 11.

Diagnosis

Clinical Presentation: Symptoms include syncope, fatigue, and exertional intolerance 1 6 11.

Electrocardiogram (ECG) Findings: Sinus bradycardia, sinoatrial block, and prolonged sinus node recovery time 1 22 30.

Electrophysiological Studies: Useful for confirming SND, including adenosine testing and atrial overdrive suppression 36 42.

Holter Monitoring: Identifies intermittent arrhythmias and prolonged pauses 1 30.

Pacemaker Evaluation: Indicated for persistent symptoms despite negative initial tests 3 11.

Management

Permanent Pacemaker Implantation: Single-chamber atrial (AAI) or dual-chamber (DDD) pacing modes 8 15 27 34 51.

Atrial Rate-Responsive Pacing: May reduce symptoms and improve quality of life 40 60.

Ventricular Pacing Minimization: Programming long atrioventricular delays to reduce RV pacing 28 51.

Drug Therapy: Methylxanthines like theophylline for acute management, though evidence is limited 4.

Physiologic Pacing: Aimed at preventing atrial fibrillation 32 51.

Special Populations

Pediatrics: Pacemaker implantation is effective in children with SND 6 38.

Elderly: Considerations for pacing mode should balance efficacy with battery longevity 15 51.

Comorbidities: Management in context of conditions like congenital heart disease or post-transplant status requires tailored approaches 18 56.

Key Recommendations

Implant a permanent pacemaker for symptomatic SND: Single-chamber atrial pacing is often sufficient, though dual-chamber pacing may offer benefits in certain cases (Evidence: Moderate 8 27).

Minimize ventricular pacing to reduce AF risk: Use programming strategies like long AV delays (Evidence: Moderate 28 51).

Consider rate-responsive pacing modes for symptomatic improvement: Especially in patients with chronotropic incompetence (Evidence: Moderate 40 60).

References

Showing 100 most recent of 185 indexed papers.

1 Eltsov I, Pannone L, Della Rocca DG, Lakkireddy D, Beaver TM, Brodt CR et al.. Endo-epicardial mapping of human sinus node in vivo: Novel electrophysiologic findings and anatomic correlations. Heart rhythm 2026. link 2 Palloni LMG, Sarno N, Azzoni C, Furia N, Mangoni ME, Porro A et al.. AMPK-mediated HCN4 channel phosphorylation contributes to age-related intrinsic bradycardia. The Journal of general physiology 2026. link 3 Doshi RN, Ip JE, Defaye P, Exner DV, Reddy VY, Hindricks G et al.. Chronic wireless communication between dual-chamber leadless pacemaker devices. Heart rhythm 2025. link 4 Roth HR, Reinert JP. Methylxanthine Derivatives in the Treatment of Sinus Node Dysfunction: A Systematic Review. Cardiology in review 2025. link 5 Ip JE. Minimizing for Maximum Benefit: An Illustrative Case-Series of Atrial Only Leadless Pacing. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2025. link 6 Tunca Sahin G, Kurt CC, Kafali HC, Sevinc Sengul F, Haydin S, Ozgur S et al.. Sinus node dysfunction in children: different aetiologies, similar clinical course in two-centre experience. Cardiology in the young 2025. link 7 Yu H, Zaveri S, Schaible M, Butt N, Tfaili S, Budzikowski AS. Sinus Node Dysfunction Triggered by Tonsillar Abscess: Effects of Vagal Nerve Compression. The American journal of case reports 2024. link 8 Velayuthan R, Sukumar SK, Bootla D, Balaguru S, Anantharaj A, Satheesh S et al.. Pacing mode survival in patients with single chamber atrial pacemaker for sinus node dysfunction. Indian heart journal 2024. link 9 Choi NH, Hong J, Moak JP. Cardioneuroablation for pediatric patients with functional sinus node dysfunction and paroxysmal atrioventricular block. Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology 2024. link 10 Chen M, Wu Q. Roles and mechanisms of natural drugs on sinus node dysfunction. Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie 2023. link 11 Manoj P, Kim JA, Kim S, Li T, Sewani M, Chelu MG et al.. Sinus node dysfunction: current understanding and future directions. American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology 2023. link 12 Li C, Ju W, Gu K, Li M, Cui C, Liu H et al.. Atrial involvement and progression of sinus node dysfunction in non-senile patients: evidences from electroanatomic mapping and long-term follow-up. Journal of interventional cardiac electrophysiology : an international journal of arrhythmias and pacing 2021. link 13 Taieb J, Le Franc P, Khattar P, Moubarak G, Gorka H, Godenir JP et al.. Occurrence of significant long PR intervals in patients implanted for sinus node dysfunction and monitored with SafeR™: The PRECISE study. Archives of cardiovascular diseases 2019. link 14 Bellmann B, Roser M, Muntean B, Tscholl V, Nagel P, Schmid M et al.. Atrial standstill in sinus node disease due to extensive atrial fibrosis: impact on dual chamber pacemaker implantation. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology 2016. link 15 Stockburger M, Defaye P, Boveda S, Stancak B, Lazarus A, Sipötz J et al.. Safety and efficiency of ventricular pacing prevention with an AAI-DDD changeover mode in patients with sinus node disease or atrioventricular block: impact on battery longevity-a sub-study of the ANSWER trial. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology 2016. link 16 Chen S, Wang Z, Kiuchi MG, Andrea BR, Krucoff MW, Liu S et al.. Cardiac pacing strategies and post-implantation risk of atrial fibrillation and heart failure events in sinus node dysfunction patients: a collaborative analysis of over 6000 patients. Clinical research in cardiology : official journal of the German Cardiac Society 2016. link 17 Agarwal A, Kumar T, Ravindranath KS, Bhat P, Manjunath CN, Agarwal N. Sinus node dysfunction complicating viper bite. Asian cardiovascular & thoracic annals 2015. link 18 Calkoen EE, Vicente-Steijn R, Hahurij ND, van Munsteren CJ, Roest AA, DeRuiter MC et al.. Abnormal sinoatrial node development resulting from disturbed vascular endothelial growth factor signaling. International journal of cardiology 2015. link 19 Pace Napoleone C, Mariucci E, Angeli E, Oppido G, Gargiulo GD. Sinus node dysfunction after partial anomalous pulmonary venous connection repair. The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery 2014. link 20 Haraki T, Hirase H, Hoda S, Hashimoto M, Higashi M. Sinus dysfunction after stent implantation in the right coronary artery immediately recovered after reflow in the sinus node artery. Cardiovascular intervention and therapeutics 2014. link 21 Bravo-Valenzuela NJ. Fetal bradycardia and sinus node dysfunction. Pediatric cardiology 2013. link 22 Fragakis N, Antoniadis AP, Korantzopoulos P, Kyriakou P, Koskinas KC, Geleris P. Sinus nodal response to adenosine relates to the severity of sinus node dysfunction. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology 2012. link 23 Kurokawa J, Furukawa T. Region- and condition-dependence of the membrane and Ca2+ clocks in the sinus node. Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society 2012. link 24 Dąbrowska-Kugacka A, Lewicka-Nowak E, Ruciński P, Zagożdżon P, Raczak G, Kutarski A. Relationship between P-wave duration and atrial electromechanical delay assessed by tissue Doppler echocardiography. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2011. link 25 Yasuoka Y, Abe H, Umekawa S, Katsuki K, Tanaka N, Araki R et al.. Interatrial septum pacing decreases atrial dyssynchrony on strain rate imaging compared with right atrial appendage pacing. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2011. link 26 Li G, Liu E, Liu T, Wang J, Dai J, Xu G et al.. Atrial electrical remodeling in a canine model of sinus node dysfunction. International journal of cardiology 2011. link 27 Kim WH, Joung B, Shim J, Park JS, Hwang ES, Pak HN et al.. Long-term outcome of single-chamber atrial pacing compared with dual-chamber pacing in patients with sinus-node dysfunction and intact atrioventricular node conduction. Yonsei medical journal 2010. link 28 Nitardy A, Langreck H, Dietz R, Stockburger M. Reduction of right ventricular pacing in patients with sinus node dysfunction through programming a long atrioventricular delay along with the DDIR mode. Clinical research in cardiology : official journal of the German Cardiac Society 2009. link 29 Slesnick TC, Kertesz NJ, Price JF. Isolated sinus node dysfunction in an infant with developmental delay. Pediatric cardiology 2008. link 30 Sanders P, Kalman JM. Progressive and persistent atrial inexcitability. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2006. link 31 Park JS, Shin DG, Kim YJ, Hong GR, Kim HJ, Shim BS. Successful treatment of ischemic dysfunction of the sinus node with thrombolytic therapy: a case report. The Korean journal of internal medicine 2006. link 32 Ricci R, Pignalberi C, Santini L, Magris B, Russo M, Grovale N et al.. Physiologic pacing for atrial fibrillation prevention in sinus node disease: long-term results. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 2006. link 33 Henry SA, Makaryus AN, Loewinger L, Boal B. The great escape: junctional escape-capture bigeminy. The American journal of geriatric cardiology 2006. link 34 Katoh H, Shinozaki T, Baba S, Satoh S, Kagaya Y, Watanabe J et al.. Monophasic action potential duration at the crista terminalis in patients with sinus node disease. Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society 2005. link 35 Sweeney MO, Hellkamp AS, Lee KL, Lamas GA. Association of prolonged QRS duration with death in a clinical trial of pacemaker therapy for sinus node dysfunction. Circulation 2005. link 36 Lin JM, Lin JL, Lai LP, Huang SK. Usefulness of single-bolus adenosine test for confirming sinus node dysfunction and correlation with atrial overdrive suppression test. The American journal of cardiology 2004. link 37 Sweeney MO, Hellkamp AS, Ellenbogen KA, Greenspon AJ, Freedman RA, Lee KL et al.. Adverse effect of ventricular pacing on heart failure and atrial fibrillation among patients with normal baseline QRS duration in a clinical trial of pacemaker therapy for sinus node dysfunction. Circulation 2003. link 38 Kardelen F, Celiker A, Ozer S, Ozme S, Oto A. Sinus node dysfunction in children and adolescents: treatment by implantation of a permanent pacemaker in 26 patients. The Turkish journal of pediatrics 2002. link 39 Charles RG. Prospective randomized trials on pacing mode: what have we learned?. The American journal of cardiology 2000. link01296-0) 40 Katoh T, Kinoshita S, Tsujumura Y, Sasaki Y. Apparent bradycardia-dependent sinoatrial block associated with respiration. Journal of electrocardiology 2000. link 41 Kou WH, Man KC, Goyal R, Strickberger SA, Morady F. Interaction between autonomic tone and the negative chronotropic effect of adenosine in humans. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1999. link 42 Clarke KW, Connelly DT, Charles RG. Single chamber atrial pacing: an underused and cost-effective pacing modality in sinus node disease. Heart (British Cardiac Society) 1998. link 43 Brandt J, Schüller H. Pacing for sinus node disease: a therapeutic rationale. Clinical cardiology 1994. link 44 Linde C, Nordlander R, Rosenqvist M. Atrial rate adaptive pacing: what happens to AV conduction?. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1994. link 45 Steckler TL. Lithium- and carbamazepine-associated sinus node dysfunction: nine-year experience in a psychiatric hospital. Journal of clinical psychopharmacology 1994. link 46 Langford EJ, Sulke AN, Curry PV. Atrial permanent pacing for sinus node dysfunction with absent right superior vena cava. International journal of cardiology 1993. link90282-l) 47 Rosenqvist M, Bergfeldt L, Aili H, Mathé AA. Sinus node dysfunction during long-term lithium treatment. British heart journal 1993. link 48 de Cock CC, Kamp O, Meijer A. Identifying patients for rate responsive atrial pacing: a new method for patient selection and pacemaker programming. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1992. link 49 Centurion OA, Fukatani M, Konoe A, Tanigawa M, Shimizu A, Isomoto S et al.. Electrophysiological abnormalities of the atrial muscle in patients with sinus node dysfunction without tachyarrhythmias. International journal of cardiology 1992. link90130-u) 50 Sneddon JF, Camm AJ. Sinus node disease. Current concepts in diagnosis and therapy. Drugs 1992. link 51 Brandt J, Anderson H, Fåhraeus T, Schüller H. Natural history of sinus node disease treated with atrial pacing in 213 patients: implications for selection of stimulation mode. Journal of the American College of Cardiology 1992. link90018-i) 52 Heinz G, Kratochwill C, Buxbaum P, Kreiner G, Laufer G, Gössinger H et al.. Long-term intrinsic pacemaker function in patients paced for sinus node deficiency after cardiac transplantation. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1992. link 53 Hluchý J, Milovský V, Pavlovic M, Uhliariková H, Makovíni M. Parasympathetic overactivity and its evaluation in patients with sinus nodal dysfunction. International journal of cardiology 1991. link90064-v) 54 Vanerio G, Patel S, Ching E, Trohman RG, Wilkoff BL, Castle LW et al.. Early clinical experience with a minute ventilation sensor DDDR pacemaker. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1991. link 55 Brandt J, Fåhraeus T, Ogawa T, Schüller H. Practical aspects of rate adaptive atrial (AAI,R) pacing: clinical experiences in 44 patients. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1991. link 56 Martí V, Ballester M, Oter R, Obrador D, Bayés-De Luna A. Recovery of sinus node function after pacemaker implant for sinus node disease following cardiac transplantation. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1991. link 57 Brandt J, Attewell R, Fåhraeus T, Schüller H. Atrial and ventricular stimulation threshold development: a comparative study in patients with a DDD pacemaker and two identical carbon-tip leads. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1990. link 58 Sethi KK, Bajaj V, Mohan JC, Arora R, Khalilullah M. Comparison of atrial and VVI pacing modes in symptomatic sinus node dysfunction without associated tachyarrhythmias. Indian heart journal 1990. link 59 Ruiter JH, de Boer H, Begemann MJ, van Mechelen R. The A-R interval as exercise indicator: a new option for rate adaptation in single and dual chamber pacing. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1990. link 60 Rosenqvist M, Arén C, Kristensson BE, Nordlander R, Schüller H. Atrial rate-responsive pacing in sinus node disease. European heart journal 1990. link 61 Zanini R, Facchinetti AI, Gallo G, Cazzamalli L, Bonandi L, Dei Cas L. Morbidity and mortality of patients with sinus node disease: comparative effects of atrial and ventricular pacing. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1990. link 62 Higano ST, Hayes DL, Eisinger G. Advantage of discrepant upper rate limits in a DDDR pacemaker. Mayo Clinic proceedings 1989. link61220-8) 63 Lemery R, Talajic M, Nattel S, Theroux P, Roy D. Sinus node dysfunction and sudden cardiac death following treatment with encainide. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1989. link 64 van Wijk LM, van den Toren WE, van Gelder I, Crijns HJ, Ruegg P, Lie KI. Electrophysiological properties of isradipine (PN200-110) in humans. Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology 1989. link 65 Tsuchioka Y, Matsumoto K, Fujii H, Masaoka S, Yuasa A, Tateishi H et al.. Electrophysiological effects of propranolol in patients with sinus node dysfunction. Japanese heart journal 1988. link 66 Rognoni G, Bolognese L, Aina F, Occhetta E, Magnani A, Rossi P. Respiratory-dependent atrial pacing, management of sinus node disease. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1988. link 67 LaRusso P, Jessup SA, Rogers FJ, Rogers JC. Sinoatrial and atrioventricular dysfunction associated with the use of guanabenz acetate. The Canadian journal of cardiology 1988. link 68 Rosenqvist M, Brandt J, Schüller H. Long-term pacing in sinus node disease: effects of stimulation mode on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. American heart journal 1988. link90244-x) 69 Kerr CR. Effect of pacing cycle length and autonomic blockade on sinus node refractoriness. The American journal of cardiology 1988. link90258-5) 70 Littmann L, Tenczer J, Svenson RH. Two-to-one sinoatrial block. Normalization by carotid massage. Chest 1988. link 71 Cotoi S, Moldovan D, Caraşcă E, Incze A, Herszenyi L, Podoleanu D. Sinus node dysfunction occurring immediately after pericardiocentesis. Physiologie (Bucarest) 1987. link 72 Bergfeldt BL, Edhag KO, Solders G, Vallin HO. Analysis of sinus cycle variation: a new method for evaluation of suspected sinus node dysfunction. American heart journal 1987. link90498-4) 73 Lorber A, Maisuls E, Palant A. Autosomal dominant inheritance of sinus node disease. International journal of cardiology 1987. link90324-x) 74 Rosenqvist M, Brandt J, Schüller H. Atrial versus ventricular pacing in sinus node disease: a treatment comparison study. American heart journal 1986. link90142-0) 75 Shugushev KKh, Rosenshtraukh LV, Smetnev AS. Electrophysiologic effects of ethmozin on sinus node function in patients with and without sinus node dysfunction. Clinical cardiology 1986. link 76 Tsuchioka Y, Yamaoka K, Hashimoto M, Yamamoto M, Sueda T, Matsuura H et al.. Electrophysiological effects of diphenylhydantoin in patients with sinus node dysfunction. Japanese heart journal 1986. link 77 Markewitz A, Schad N, Hemmer W, Bernheim C, Ciavolella M, Weinhold C. What is the most appropriate stimulation mode in patients with sinus node dysfunction?. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1986. link 78 Robbens EJ, Ruiter JH. Atrial pacing via unilateral persistent left superior vena cava. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1986. link 79 Masini G, Dianda R, Zanetti L, Masini M. Sinus node pacemaker shift: a phenomenon induced by premature atrial stimulation in man?. Journal of electrocardiology 1986. link80021-8) 80 Satoh S, Kanatsuka H, Kyono H, Suzuki H, Suzuki T, Watanabe J et al.. A new indirect method for measurement of sinoatrial conduction time and sinus node return cycle. Japanese heart journal 1985. link 81 Albin G, Hayes DL, Holmes DR. Sinus node dysfunction in pediatric and young adult patients: treatment by implantation of a permanent pacemaker in 39 cases. Mayo Clinic proceedings 1985. link60742-3) 82 Rosenqvist M, Vallin H, Edhag O. Clinical and electrophysiologic course of sinus node disease: five-year follow-up study. American heart journal 1985. link90556-3) 83 Reiffel JA, Bigger JT, Ferrick K, Livelli FD, Gliklich J, Wang P et al.. Sinus node echoes and concealed concealed conduction: additional sinus node phenomena confirmed in man by direct sinus node electrography. Journal of electrocardiology 1985. link80050-9) 84 Michelucci A, Padeletti L, Fradella GA, Monizzi D, Giomi A, Fantini F. Effects of pharmacologic autonomic blockade on atrial electrophysiologic properties in normal subjects and in patients with sinus node disease. International journal of cardiology 1985. link90120-2) 85 Santinelli V, Chiariello M, Condorelli M. Nonparoxysmal atrioventricular junctional rhythm. A clinical and electrophysiologic study. European heart journal 1984. link 86 Rosenqvist M, Vallin HO, Edhag KO. Rate hysteresis pacing: how valuable is it? A comparison of the stimulation rates of 70 and 50 beats per minute and rate hysteresis in patients with sinus node disease. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1984. link 87 Morley CA, Dehn TC, Perrins EJ, Chan SL, Sutton R. Baroreflex sensitivity measured by the phenylephrine pressor test in patients with carotid sinus and sick sinus syndromes. Cardiovascular research 1984. link 88 Shaw DB, Southall DP. Sinus node arrest and sino--atrial block. European heart journal 1984. link 89 van Mechelen R, Segers A, Hagemeijer F. Serial electrophysiologic studies after single chamber atrial pacemaker implantation in patients with symptomatic sinus node dysfunction. European heart journal 1984. link 90 Swiryn S, McDonough T, Hueter DC. Sinus node function and dysfunction. The Medical clinics of North America 1984. link31107-5) 91 Roifman C, Dembo L, Grenadier E, Margolis T, Palant A, Iancu TC. Sinus node dysfunction in a healthy pediatric population. Israel journal of medical sciences 1984. link 92 Rakovec P, Jakopin J, Rode P, Kenda MF, Horvat M. Electrophysiological effects of ethmozin on sinus nodal function in patients with and without sinus node dysfunction. European heart journal 1984. link 93 Ector H, Bourgois J, Verlinden M, Hermans L, Vanden Eynde E, Fagard R et al.. Bradycardia, ventricular pauses, syncope, and sports. Lancet (London, England) 1984. link90593-2) 94 Sokoloff NM. Bradyarrhythmias: sinus node dysfunction. Geriatrics 1984. link 95 Repolski M, Cotoi S. Emergency situations in sinus node dysfunction. Medecine interne 1984. link 96 Ramsdale DR, Charles RG. Endocardial pacing in a patient with sinus node dysfunction and absent right superior vena cava. British heart journal 1984. link 97 Carpentier RG, Gallardo-Carpentier A, Posner P. Absence of desensitization in the response of the guinea pig sinus node to carbamylcholine. Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology 1984. link 98 Yan HC. The provocative test and their diagnostic value in sinus node failure. Angiology 1984. link 99 Hellestrand KJ, Nathan AW, Bexton RS, Camm AJ. Response of an abnormal sinus node to intravenous flecainide acetate. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE 1984. link 100 Dahlström U, Lassvik C. Electrophysiological effects of prenalterol on the cardiac conduction system. European heart journal 1983. link

Original source

[1]
Endo-epicardial mapping of human sinus node in vivo: Novel electrophysiologic findings and anatomic correlations. — Eltsov I, Pannone L, Della Rocca DG, Lakkireddy D, Beaver TM, Brodt CR et al. Heart rhythm (2026)
[2]
AMPK-mediated HCN4 channel phosphorylation contributes to age-related intrinsic bradycardia. — Palloni LMG, Sarno N, Azzoni C, Furia N, Mangoni ME, Porro A et al. The Journal of general physiology (2026)
[3]
Chronic wireless communication between dual-chamber leadless pacemaker devices. — Doshi RN, Ip JE, Defaye P, Exner DV, Reddy VY, Hindricks G et al. Heart rhythm (2025)
[4]
Methylxanthine Derivatives in the Treatment of Sinus Node Dysfunction: A Systematic Review. — Roth HR, Reinert JP Cardiology in review (2025)
[5]
Minimizing for Maximum Benefit: An Illustrative Case-Series of Atrial Only Leadless Pacing. — Ip JE Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE (2025)
[6]
Sinus node dysfunction in children: different aetiologies, similar clinical course in two-centre experience. — Tunca Sahin G, Kurt CC, Kafali HC, Sevinc Sengul F, Haydin S, Ozgur S et al. Cardiology in the young (2025)
[7]
Sinus Node Dysfunction Triggered by Tonsillar Abscess: Effects of Vagal Nerve Compression. — Yu H, Zaveri S, Schaible M, Butt N, Tfaili S, Budzikowski AS The American journal of case reports (2024)
[8]
Pacing mode survival in patients with single chamber atrial pacemaker for sinus node dysfunction. — Velayuthan R, Sukumar SK, Bootla D, Balaguru S, Anantharaj A, Satheesh S et al. Indian heart journal (2024)
[9]
Cardioneuroablation for pediatric patients with functional sinus node dysfunction and paroxysmal atrioventricular block. — Choi NH, Hong J, Moak JP Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology (2024)
[10]
Roles and mechanisms of natural drugs on sinus node dysfunction. — Chen M, Wu Q Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie (2023)
[11]
Sinus node dysfunction: current understanding and future directions. — Manoj P, Kim JA, Kim S, Li T, Sewani M, Chelu MG et al. American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology (2023)
[12]
Atrial involvement and progression of sinus node dysfunction in non-senile patients: evidences from electroanatomic mapping and long-term follow-up. — Li C, Ju W, Gu K, Li M, Cui C, Liu H et al. Journal of interventional cardiac electrophysiology : an international journal of arrhythmias and pacing (2021)
[13]
Occurrence of significant long PR intervals in patients implanted for sinus node dysfunction and monitored with SafeR™: The PRECISE study. — Taieb J, Le Franc P, Khattar P, Moubarak G, Gorka H, Godenir JP et al. Archives of cardiovascular diseases (2019)
[14]
Atrial standstill in sinus node disease due to extensive atrial fibrosis: impact on dual chamber pacemaker implantation. — Bellmann B, Roser M, Muntean B, Tscholl V, Nagel P, Schmid M et al. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology (2016)
[15]
Safety and efficiency of ventricular pacing prevention with an AAI-DDD changeover mode in patients with sinus node disease or atrioventricular block: impact on battery longevity-a sub-study of the ANSWER trial. — Stockburger M, Defaye P, Boveda S, Stancak B, Lazarus A, Sipötz J et al. Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology (2016)
[16]
Cardiac pacing strategies and post-implantation risk of atrial fibrillation and heart failure events in sinus node dysfunction patients: a collaborative analysis of over 6000 patients. — Chen S, Wang Z, Kiuchi MG, Andrea BR, Krucoff MW, Liu S et al. Clinical research in cardiology : official journal of the German Cardiac Society (2016)
[17]
Sinus node dysfunction complicating viper bite. — Agarwal A, Kumar T, Ravindranath KS, Bhat P, Manjunath CN, Agarwal N Asian cardiovascular & thoracic annals (2015)
[18]
Abnormal sinoatrial node development resulting from disturbed vascular endothelial growth factor signaling. — Calkoen EE, Vicente-Steijn R, Hahurij ND, van Munsteren CJ, Roest AA, DeRuiter MC et al. International journal of cardiology (2015)
[19]
Sinus node dysfunction after partial anomalous pulmonary venous connection repair. — Pace Napoleone C, Mariucci E, Angeli E, Oppido G, Gargiulo GD The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery (2014)
[20]
Sinus dysfunction after stent implantation in the right coronary artery immediately recovered after reflow in the sinus node artery. — Haraki T, Hirase H, Hoda S, Hashimoto M, Higashi M Cardiovascular intervention and therapeutics (2014)
[21]
Fetal bradycardia and sinus node dysfunction. — Bravo-Valenzuela NJ Pediatric cardiology (2013)
[22]
Sinus nodal response to adenosine relates to the severity of sinus node dysfunction. — Fragakis N, Antoniadis AP, Korantzopoulos P, Kyriakou P, Koskinas KC, Geleris P Europace : European pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac electrophysiology : journal of the working groups on cardiac pacing, arrhythmias, and cardiac cellular electrophysiology of the European Society of Cardiology (2012)
[23]
Region- and condition-dependence of the membrane and Ca2+ clocks in the sinus node. — Kurokawa J, Furukawa T Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society (2012)
[24]
Relationship between P-wave duration and atrial electromechanical delay assessed by tissue Doppler echocardiography. — Dąbrowska-Kugacka A, Lewicka-Nowak E, Ruciński P, Zagożdżon P, Raczak G, Kutarski A Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE (2011)
[25]
Interatrial septum pacing decreases atrial dyssynchrony on strain rate imaging compared with right atrial appendage pacing. — Yasuoka Y, Abe H, Umekawa S, Katsuki K, Tanaka N, Araki R et al. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE (2011)
[26]
Atrial electrical remodeling in a canine model of sinus node dysfunction. — Li G, Liu E, Liu T, Wang J, Dai J, Xu G et al. International journal of cardiology (2011)
[27]
Long-term outcome of single-chamber atrial pacing compared with dual-chamber pacing in patients with sinus-node dysfunction and intact atrioventricular node conduction. — Kim WH, Joung B, Shim J, Park JS, Hwang ES, Pak HN et al. Yonsei medical journal (2010)
[28]
Reduction of right ventricular pacing in patients with sinus node dysfunction through programming a long atrioventricular delay along with the DDIR mode. — Nitardy A, Langreck H, Dietz R, Stockburger M Clinical research in cardiology : official journal of the German Cardiac Society (2009)
[29]
Isolated sinus node dysfunction in an infant with developmental delay. — Slesnick TC, Kertesz NJ, Price JF Pediatric cardiology (2008)
[30]
Progressive and persistent atrial inexcitability. — Sanders P, Kalman JM Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE (2006)
[31]
Successful treatment of ischemic dysfunction of the sinus node with thrombolytic therapy: a case report. — Park JS, Shin DG, Kim YJ, Hong GR, Kim HJ, Shim BS The Korean journal of internal medicine (2006)
[32]
Physiologic pacing for atrial fibrillation prevention in sinus node disease: long-term results. — Ricci R, Pignalberi C, Santini L, Magris B, Russo M, Grovale N et al. Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE (2006)
[33]
The great escape: junctional escape-capture bigeminy. — Henry SA, Makaryus AN, Loewinger L, Boal B The American journal of geriatric cardiology (2006)
[34]
Monophasic action potential duration at the crista terminalis in patients with sinus node disease. — Katoh H, Shinozaki T, Baba S, Satoh S, Kagaya Y, Watanabe J et al. Circulation journal : official journal of the Japanese Circulation Society (2005)
[35]
Association of prolonged QRS duration with death in a clinical trial of pacemaker therapy for sinus node dysfunction. — Sweeney MO, Hellkamp AS, Lee KL, Lamas GA Circulation (2005)
[36]
Usefulness of single-bolus adenosine test for confirming sinus node dysfunction and correlation with atrial overdrive suppression test. — Lin JM, Lin JL, Lai LP, Huang SK The American journal of cardiology (2004)
[37]
Adverse effect of ventricular pacing on heart failure and atrial fibrillation among patients with normal baseline QRS duration in a clinical trial of pacemaker therapy for sinus node dysfunction. — Sweeney MO, Hellkamp AS, Ellenbogen KA, Greenspon AJ, Freedman RA, Lee KL et al. Circulation (2003)
[38]
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The provocative test and their diagnostic value in sinus node failure. — Yan HC Angiology (1984)
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