HemoChat

Evidence-Based AI Medical Search

← Back to guidelines
Cardiology456 papers

Acute respiratory failure

Last edited: 4/13/2026

Overview

Acute respiratory failure (ARF) is characterized by the inability of the respiratory system to maintain adequate gas exchange, leading to hypoxemia and/or hypercapnia. It often necessitates mechanical ventilation or noninvasive respiratory support 11538.

Diagnosis

  • Clinical Presentation: Hypoxemia, hypercapnia, altered mental status, tachypnea, use of accessory muscles 115.
  • Diagnostic Tests: Pulse oximetry, arterial blood gas analysis, chest imaging (X-ray, CT) to assess lung pathology 1438.
  • Grading: Severity can be assessed using criteria like the Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II) score 21.

    • Management

  • Mechanical Ventilation: Initiate for severe cases, using lung-protective ventilation strategies (e.g., low tidal volumes) 11541.
  • Noninvasive Ventilation (NIV): First-line for moderate ARF to avoid intubation 22630.
  • Sedation: Use protocolized sedation to minimize duration and depth, aiming for lighter sedation 143046.
  • Monitoring: Regular assessment of sedation levels, patient-ventilator synchrony, and organ function 52436.
  • Supportive Care: Fluid management, prone positioning in severe cases, and adjunctive therapies like high-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) 938.
  • ECMO: Consider for refractory hypoxemia 1055.

    • Special Populations

  • Pediatrics: Protocolized sedation improves outcomes; monitor for apnea and sedation-related adverse events 635.
  • Pregnancy: ECMO use in obstetric patients requires careful consideration due to limited data 13.
  • Elderly: Noninvasive ventilation can be effective but assess frailty and comorbidities 50.
  • Comorbidities: Extra-pulmonary organ dysfunction significantly impacts prognosis; monitor and manage accordingly 24555.

    • Key Recommendations

  • Use Protocolized Sedation to reduce duration and depth, aiming for lighter sedation in mechanically ventilated patients (Evidence: Strong 1430).
  • Initiate Noninvasive Ventilation (NIV) early for moderate ARF to prevent intubation (Evidence: Moderate 226).
  • Implement Lung-Protective Ventilation Strategies in mechanical ventilation, including low tidal volumes (Evidence: Strong 11541).
  • Monitor for and Manage Extra-Pulmonary Organ Dysfunction as it significantly affects outcomes (Evidence: Moderate 245).
  • Consider High-Flow Nasal Cannula (HFNC) as a supportive therapy in appropriate cases (Evidence: Moderate 9).
  • Evaluate and Use ECMO cautiously for refractory hypoxemia in severe cases (Evidence: Weak 1055).

    • References

    1 Wang J, Li Y, Han Y, Yuan X. Comparison of programmed sedation care with conventional care in patients receiving mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory failure. Irish journal of medical science 2025. link 2 Labar AS, Ulrich BC, Lovelace TC, Bain WG, Shah FA, White EB et al.. Plasma Levels of Soluble ST2 Reflect Extrapulmonary Organ Dysfunction and Predict Outcomes in Acute Respiratory Failure. Critical care medicine 2025. link 3 Ahmadi F, Chalabianloo N, McArthur E, Omrani MA, Abdullah SS, Garcia-Bournissen F et al.. Severe Acute Respiratory Failure Associated With Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole Among Adolescent and Young Adults: An Active Comparator-Restricted Disproportionality Analysis From the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) Database. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2025. link 4 Yang B, Gao L, Tong Z. Sedation and analgesia strategies for non-invasive mechanical ventilation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Heart & lung : the journal of critical care 2024. link 5 Favre E, Bernini A, Miroz JP, Abed-Maillard S, Ramelet AS, Oddo M. Early processed electroencephalography for the monitoring of deeply sedated mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. Nursing in critical care 2024. link 6 Bermúdez-Barrezueta L, Mayordomo-Colunga J, Miñambres-Rodríguez M, Reyes S, Valencia-Ramos J, Lopez-Fernandez YM et al.. Implications of sedation during the use of noninvasive ventilation in children with acute respiratory failure (SEDANIV Study). Critical care (London, England) 2024. link 7 Jabbour S, Fouhey D, Shepard S, Valley TS, Kazerooni EA, Banovic N et al.. Measuring the Impact of AI in the Diagnosis of Hospitalized Patients: A Randomized Clinical Vignette Survey Study. JAMA 2023. link 8 Olszewski AE, Dervan LA, Smith MB, Asaro LA, Wypij D, Curley MAQ et al.. Risk Factors for Positive Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Screening and Associated Outcomes in Children Surviving Acute Respiratory Failure: A Secondary Analysis of the Randomized Evaluation of Sedation Titration for Respiratory Failure Clinical Trial. Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies 2023. link 9 Oczkowski S, Ergan B, Bos L, Chatwin M, Ferrer M, Gregoretti C et al.. ERS clinical practice guidelines: high-flow nasal cannula in acute respiratory failure. The European respiratory journal 2022. link 10 Heuts S, Makhoul M, Mansouri AN, Taccone FS, Obeid A, Belliato M et al.. Defining and understanding the "extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation gap" in the veno-venous configuration: Timing and causes of death. Artificial organs 2022. link 11 Renda T, Scala R, Corrado A, Ambrosino N, Vaghi A. Adult Pulmonary Intensive and Intermediate Care Units: The Italian Thoracic Society (ITS-AIPO) Position Paper. Respiration; international review of thoracic diseases 2021. link 12 Monteiro ACC, Flori H, Dahmer MK, Sim MS, Quasney MW, Curley MAQ et al.. Thrombomodulin is associated with increased mortality and organ failure in mechanically ventilated children with acute respiratory failure: biomarker analysis from a multicenter randomized controlled trial. Critical care (London, England) 2021. link 13 Sebastian N, Czuzoj-Shulman N, Spence AR, Abenhaim HA. Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in obstetric patients: a retrospective cohort study. Archives of gynecology and obstetrics 2020. link 14 Chiumello D, Sferrazza Papa GF, Artigas A, Bouhemad B, Grgic A, Heunks L et al.. ERS statement on chest imaging in acute respiratory failure. The European respiratory journal 2019. link 15 Kapil S, Wilson JG. Mechanical Ventilation in Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 2019. link 16 Delgado M, Subirá C, Hermosa C, Gordo F, Riera J, Fernández R. Proportional assist ventilation feasibility in the early stage of respiratory failure: a prospective randomized multicenter trial. Minerva anestesiologica 2019. link 17 Prohaska CC, Sottile PD, Nordon-Craft A, Gallagher MD, Burnham EL, Clark BJ et al.. Patterns of utilization and effects of hospital-specific factors on physical, occupational, and speech therapy for critically ill patients with acute respiratory failure in the USA: results of a 5-year sample. Critical care (London, England) 2019. link 18 Viscusi CD, Pacheco GS. Pediatric Emergency Noninvasive Ventilation. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 2018. link 19 Serraino GF, Jiritano F, Rossi M, Mastroroberto P. Bedside Emergency Percutaneous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenator with Bicaval Dual-Lumen Cannula. The heart surgery forum 2018. link 20 Watson RS, Asaro LA, Hertzog JH, Sorce LR, Kachmar AG, Dervan LA et al.. Long-Term Outcomes after Protocolized Sedation versus Usual Care in Ventilated Pediatric Patients. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine 2018. link 21 Pedersen PB, Hrobjartsson A, Nielsen DL, Henriksen DP, Brabrand M, Lassen AT. Prevalence and prognosis of acutely ill patients with organ failure at arrival to hospital: A systematic review. PloS one 2018. link 22 Spadaro S, Karbing DS, Fogagnolo A, Ragazzi R, Mojoli F, Astolfi L et al.. Simulation Training for Residents Focused on Mechanical Ventilation: A Randomized Trial Using Mannequin-Based Versus Computer-Based Simulation. Simulation in healthcare : journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare 2017. link 23 Driver BE, Reardon RF. Apnea After Low-Dose Ketamine Sedation During Attempted Delayed Sequence Intubation. Annals of emergency medicine 2017. link 24 Lebet R, Hayakawa J, Chamblee TB, Tala JA, Singh N, Wypij D et al.. Maintaining Interrater Agreement of Core Assessment Instruments in a Multisite Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial: The Randomized Evaluation of Sedation Titration for Respiratory Failure (RESTORE) Trial. Nursing research 2017. link 25 Weiss SL, Asaro LA, Flori HR, Allen GL, Wypij D, Curley MA. Multiple Organ Dysfunction in Children Mechanically Ventilated for Acute Respiratory Failure. Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies 2017. link 26 Allison MG, Winters ME. Noninvasive Ventilation for the Emergency Physician. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 2016. link 27 Scala R. Flexible bronchoscopy during non-invasive positive pressure mechanical ventilation: are two better than one?. Panminerva medica 2016. link 28 Gong MN, Schenk L, Gajic O, Mirhaji P, Sloan J, Dong Y et al.. Early intervention of patients at risk for acute respiratory failure and prolonged mechanical ventilation with a checklist aimed at the prevention of organ failure: protocol for a pragmatic stepped-wedged cluster trial of PROOFCheck. BMJ open 2016. link 29 Matsumoto T, Tomii K, Tachikawa R, Otsuka K, Nagata K, Otsuka K et al.. Role of sedation for agitated patients undergoing noninvasive ventilation: clinical practice in a tertiary referral hospital. BMC pulmonary medicine 2015. link 30 Curley MA, Wypij D, Watson RS, Grant MJ, Asaro LA, Cheifetz IM et al.. Protocolized sedation vs usual care in pediatric patients mechanically ventilated for acute respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial. JAMA 2015. link 31 Cabrini L, Nobile L, Plumari VP, Landoni G, Borghi G, Mucchetti M et al.. Intraoperative prophylactic and therapeutic non-invasive ventilation: a systematic review. British journal of anaesthesia 2014. link 32 Vaschetto R, Cammarota G, Colombo D, Longhini F, Grossi F, Giovanniello A et al.. Effects of propofol on patient-ventilator synchrony and interaction during pressure support ventilation and neurally adjusted ventilatory assist. Critical care medicine 2014. link 33 Okkonen M, Gäddnäs F, Pettilä V, Laurila J, Ohtonen P, Risteli J et al.. Serum markers of collagen synthesis and degradation in acute respiratory failure patients. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2013. link 34 Hilbert G, Clouzeau B, Nam Bui H, Vargas F. Sedation during non-invasive ventilation. Minerva anestesiologica 2012. link 35 Grant MJ, Scoppettuolo LA, Wypij D, Curley MA. Prospective evaluation of sedation-related adverse events in pediatric patients ventilated for acute respiratory failure. Critical care medicine 2012. link 36 Arnal JM, Wysocki M, Novotni D, Demory D, Lopez R, Donati S et al.. Safety and efficacy of a fully closed-loop control ventilation (IntelliVent-ASV®) in sedated ICU patients with acute respiratory failure: a prospective randomized crossover study. Intensive care medicine 2012. link 37 Mariotte E, Schnell D, Scieux C, Agbalika F, Legoff J, Ribaud P et al.. Significance of herpesvirus 6 in BAL fluid of hematology patients with acute respiratory failure. Infection 2011. link 38 Mac Sweeney R, McAuley DF, Matthay MA. Acute lung failure. Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine 2011. link 39 Linko R, Karlsson S, Pettilä V, Varpula T, Okkonen M, Lund V et al.. Serum zinc in critically ill adult patients with acute respiratory failure. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 2011. link 40 Crimi C, Noto A, Princi P, Esquinas A, Nava S. A European survey of noninvasive ventilation practices. The European respiratory journal 2010. link 41 Rogovik A, Goldman R. Permissive hypercapnia. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 2008. link 42 Devlin JW, Nava S, Fong JJ, Bahhady I, Hill NS. Survey of sedation practices during noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation to treat acute respiratory failure. Critical care medicine 2007. link 43 Constantin JM, Schneider E, Cayot-Constantin S, Guerin R, Bannier F, Futier E et al.. Remifentanil-based sedation to treat noninvasive ventilation failure: a preliminary study. Intensive care medicine 2007. link 44 Carron M, Gagliardi G, Michielan F, Freo U, Ori C. Occurrence of pneumothorax during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation through a helmet. Journal of clinical anesthesia 2007. link 45 Aggarwal AN, Agarwal R, Gupta D, Jindal SK. Nonpulmonary organ dysfunction and its impact on outcome in patients with acute respiratory failure. Chest 2007. link 46 Williams G. Recently published papers: a number of treatment controversies. Critical care (London, England) 2003. link 47 Lewandowski K. Contributions to the epidemiology of acute respiratory failure. Critical care (London, England) 2003. link 48 Flaatten H, Gjerde S, Guttormsen AB, Haugen O, Høivik T, Onarheim H et al.. Outcome after acute respiratory failure is more dependent on dysfunction in other vital organs than on the severity of the respiratory failure. Critical care (London, England) 2003. link 49 Vincent JL, Akça S, De Mendonça A, Haji-Michael P, Sprung C, Moreno R et al.. The epidemiology of acute respiratory failure in critically ill patients(). Chest* 2002. link 50 Scheirlinckx K, Vanpee D, Swine C. Non-invasive ventilation for frail elderly patients with acute respiratory failure. Aging (Milan, Italy) 2001. link 51 Abid O, Sun Q, Sugimoto K, Mercan D, Vincent JL. Predictive value of microalbuminuria in medical ICU patients: results of a pilot study. Chest 2001. link 52 Servillo G, Coppola M, Blasi F, Tufano R. The measurement of the pressure-volume curves with computerized methods. Minerva anestesiologica 2000. link 53 Fermann GJ, Pollack CV. Respiratory pearls, pitfalls, and updates. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 1997. link70301-1) 54 O'Keefe GE, Maier RV. New regimens in the management of posttraumatic respiratory failure. Current opinion in pulmonary medicine 1997. link 55 Bjertnaes L, Vaage J, Almdahl SM, Lie M, Nilsen PA, Hansen K et al.. Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) as lung or heart assist. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica 1996. link 56 Luer JM. Sedation and chemical relaxation in critical pulmonary illness: suggestions for patient assessment and drug monitoring. AACN clinical issues 1995. link 57 Iluchev D, Kostianev S, Atanassov A, Lazarov S. Blood gases, electrolytes and metabolic monitoring in children with acute failure of vital functions. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum 1995. link 58 Bellomo R, Farmer M, Boyce N. Combined acute respiratory and renal failure: management by continuous hemodiafiltration. Resuscitation 1994. link90084-1) 59 Dauberschmidt R, Mrochen H, Förster I, Stumpe C, Dressler C, Grajetzki H et al.. Changes in ceruloplasmin activity and lactate concentration in patients at high risk of acute organ system failure. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry 1991. link90108-o) 60 Marks JD, Schapera A, Kraemer RW, Katz JA. Pressure and flow limitations of anesthesia ventilators. Anesthesiology 1989. link 61 Bihari D, Smithies M, Gimson A, Tinker J. The effects of vasodilation with prostacyclin on oxygen delivery and uptake in critically ill patients. The New England journal of medicine 1987. link 62 Bartlett RH, Morris AH, Fairley HB, Hirsch R, O'Connor N, Pontoppidan H. A prospective study of acute hypoxic respiratory failure. Chest 1986. link

    Original source

    1. [1]
      Comparison of programmed sedation care with conventional care in patients receiving mechanical ventilation for acute respiratory failure. — Wang J, Li Y, Han Y, Yuan X Irish journal of medical science (2025)
    2. [2]
      Plasma Levels of Soluble ST2 Reflect Extrapulmonary Organ Dysfunction and Predict Outcomes in Acute Respiratory Failure. — Labar AS, Ulrich BC, Lovelace TC, Bain WG, Shah FA, White EB et al. Critical care medicine (2025)
    3. [3]
      Severe Acute Respiratory Failure Associated With Trimethoprim/Sulfamethoxazole Among Adolescent and Young Adults: An Active Comparator-Restricted Disproportionality Analysis From the FDA Adverse Event Reporting System (FAERS) Database. — Ahmadi F, Chalabianloo N, McArthur E, Omrani MA, Abdullah SS, Garcia-Bournissen F et al. The Annals of pharmacotherapy (2025)
    4. [4]
      Sedation and analgesia strategies for non-invasive mechanical ventilation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. — Yang B, Gao L, Tong Z Heart & lung : the journal of critical care (2024)
    5. [5]
      Early processed electroencephalography for the monitoring of deeply sedated mechanically ventilated critically ill patients. — Favre E, Bernini A, Miroz JP, Abed-Maillard S, Ramelet AS, Oddo M Nursing in critical care (2024)
    6. [6]
      Implications of sedation during the use of noninvasive ventilation in children with acute respiratory failure (SEDANIV Study). — Bermúdez-Barrezueta L, Mayordomo-Colunga J, Miñambres-Rodríguez M, Reyes S, Valencia-Ramos J, Lopez-Fernandez YM et al. Critical care (London, England) (2024)
    7. [7]
      Measuring the Impact of AI in the Diagnosis of Hospitalized Patients: A Randomized Clinical Vignette Survey Study. — Jabbour S, Fouhey D, Shepard S, Valley TS, Kazerooni EA, Banovic N et al. JAMA (2023)
    8. [8]
      Risk Factors for Positive Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder Screening and Associated Outcomes in Children Surviving Acute Respiratory Failure: A Secondary Analysis of the Randomized Evaluation of Sedation Titration for Respiratory Failure Clinical Trial. — Olszewski AE, Dervan LA, Smith MB, Asaro LA, Wypij D, Curley MAQ et al. Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies (2023)
    9. [9]
      ERS clinical practice guidelines: high-flow nasal cannula in acute respiratory failure. — Oczkowski S, Ergan B, Bos L, Chatwin M, Ferrer M, Gregoretti C et al. The European respiratory journal (2022)
    10. [10]
      Defining and understanding the "extra-corporeal membrane oxygenation gap" in the veno-venous configuration: Timing and causes of death. — Heuts S, Makhoul M, Mansouri AN, Taccone FS, Obeid A, Belliato M et al. Artificial organs (2022)
    11. [11]
      Adult Pulmonary Intensive and Intermediate Care Units: The Italian Thoracic Society (ITS-AIPO) Position Paper. — Renda T, Scala R, Corrado A, Ambrosino N, Vaghi A Respiration; international review of thoracic diseases (2021)
    12. [12]
      Thrombomodulin is associated with increased mortality and organ failure in mechanically ventilated children with acute respiratory failure: biomarker analysis from a multicenter randomized controlled trial. — Monteiro ACC, Flori H, Dahmer MK, Sim MS, Quasney MW, Curley MAQ et al. Critical care (London, England) (2021)
    13. [13]
      Use of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation in obstetric patients: a retrospective cohort study. — Sebastian N, Czuzoj-Shulman N, Spence AR, Abenhaim HA Archives of gynecology and obstetrics (2020)
    14. [14]
      ERS statement on chest imaging in acute respiratory failure. — Chiumello D, Sferrazza Papa GF, Artigas A, Bouhemad B, Grgic A, Heunks L et al. The European respiratory journal (2019)
    15. [15]
      Mechanical Ventilation in Hypoxemic Respiratory Failure. — Kapil S, Wilson JG Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2019)
    16. [16]
      Proportional assist ventilation feasibility in the early stage of respiratory failure: a prospective randomized multicenter trial. — Delgado M, Subirá C, Hermosa C, Gordo F, Riera J, Fernández R Minerva anestesiologica (2019)
    17. [17]
      Patterns of utilization and effects of hospital-specific factors on physical, occupational, and speech therapy for critically ill patients with acute respiratory failure in the USA: results of a 5-year sample. — Prohaska CC, Sottile PD, Nordon-Craft A, Gallagher MD, Burnham EL, Clark BJ et al. Critical care (London, England) (2019)
    18. [18]
      Pediatric Emergency Noninvasive Ventilation. — Viscusi CD, Pacheco GS Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2018)
    19. [19]
      Bedside Emergency Percutaneous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenator with Bicaval Dual-Lumen Cannula. — Serraino GF, Jiritano F, Rossi M, Mastroroberto P The heart surgery forum (2018)
    20. [20]
      Long-Term Outcomes after Protocolized Sedation versus Usual Care in Ventilated Pediatric Patients. — Watson RS, Asaro LA, Hertzog JH, Sorce LR, Kachmar AG, Dervan LA et al. American journal of respiratory and critical care medicine (2018)
    21. [21]
      Prevalence and prognosis of acutely ill patients with organ failure at arrival to hospital: A systematic review. — Pedersen PB, Hrobjartsson A, Nielsen DL, Henriksen DP, Brabrand M, Lassen AT PloS one (2018)
    22. [22]
      Simulation Training for Residents Focused on Mechanical Ventilation: A Randomized Trial Using Mannequin-Based Versus Computer-Based Simulation. — Spadaro S, Karbing DS, Fogagnolo A, Ragazzi R, Mojoli F, Astolfi L et al. Simulation in healthcare : journal of the Society for Simulation in Healthcare (2017)
    23. [23]
      Apnea After Low-Dose Ketamine Sedation During Attempted Delayed Sequence Intubation. — Driver BE, Reardon RF Annals of emergency medicine (2017)
    24. [24]
      Maintaining Interrater Agreement of Core Assessment Instruments in a Multisite Randomized Controlled Clinical Trial: The Randomized Evaluation of Sedation Titration for Respiratory Failure (RESTORE) Trial. — Lebet R, Hayakawa J, Chamblee TB, Tala JA, Singh N, Wypij D et al. Nursing research (2017)
    25. [25]
      Multiple Organ Dysfunction in Children Mechanically Ventilated for Acute Respiratory Failure. — Weiss SL, Asaro LA, Flori HR, Allen GL, Wypij D, Curley MA Pediatric critical care medicine : a journal of the Society of Critical Care Medicine and the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies (2017)
    26. [26]
      Noninvasive Ventilation for the Emergency Physician. — Allison MG, Winters ME Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2016)
    27. [27]
      Flexible bronchoscopy during non-invasive positive pressure mechanical ventilation: are two better than one? — Scala R Panminerva medica (2016)
    28. [28]
      Early intervention of patients at risk for acute respiratory failure and prolonged mechanical ventilation with a checklist aimed at the prevention of organ failure: protocol for a pragmatic stepped-wedged cluster trial of PROOFCheck. — Gong MN, Schenk L, Gajic O, Mirhaji P, Sloan J, Dong Y et al. BMJ open (2016)
    29. [29]
      Role of sedation for agitated patients undergoing noninvasive ventilation: clinical practice in a tertiary referral hospital. — Matsumoto T, Tomii K, Tachikawa R, Otsuka K, Nagata K, Otsuka K et al. BMC pulmonary medicine (2015)
    30. [30]
      Protocolized sedation vs usual care in pediatric patients mechanically ventilated for acute respiratory failure: a randomized clinical trial. — Curley MA, Wypij D, Watson RS, Grant MJ, Asaro LA, Cheifetz IM et al. JAMA (2015)
    31. [31]
      Intraoperative prophylactic and therapeutic non-invasive ventilation: a systematic review. — Cabrini L, Nobile L, Plumari VP, Landoni G, Borghi G, Mucchetti M et al. British journal of anaesthesia (2014)
    32. [32]
      Effects of propofol on patient-ventilator synchrony and interaction during pressure support ventilation and neurally adjusted ventilatory assist. — Vaschetto R, Cammarota G, Colombo D, Longhini F, Grossi F, Giovanniello A et al. Critical care medicine (2014)
    33. [33]
      Serum markers of collagen synthesis and degradation in acute respiratory failure patients. — Okkonen M, Gäddnäs F, Pettilä V, Laurila J, Ohtonen P, Risteli J et al. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica (2013)
    34. [34]
      Sedation during non-invasive ventilation. — Hilbert G, Clouzeau B, Nam Bui H, Vargas F Minerva anestesiologica (2012)
    35. [35]
      Prospective evaluation of sedation-related adverse events in pediatric patients ventilated for acute respiratory failure. — Grant MJ, Scoppettuolo LA, Wypij D, Curley MA Critical care medicine (2012)
    36. [36]
      Safety and efficacy of a fully closed-loop control ventilation (IntelliVent-ASV®) in sedated ICU patients with acute respiratory failure: a prospective randomized crossover study. — Arnal JM, Wysocki M, Novotni D, Demory D, Lopez R, Donati S et al. Intensive care medicine (2012)
    37. [37]
      Significance of herpesvirus 6 in BAL fluid of hematology patients with acute respiratory failure. — Mariotte E, Schnell D, Scieux C, Agbalika F, Legoff J, Ribaud P et al. Infection (2011)
    38. [38]
      Acute lung failure. — Mac Sweeney R, McAuley DF, Matthay MA Seminars in respiratory and critical care medicine (2011)
    39. [39]
      Serum zinc in critically ill adult patients with acute respiratory failure. — Linko R, Karlsson S, Pettilä V, Varpula T, Okkonen M, Lund V et al. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica (2011)
    40. [40]
      A European survey of noninvasive ventilation practices. — Crimi C, Noto A, Princi P, Esquinas A, Nava S The European respiratory journal (2010)
    41. [41]
      Permissive hypercapnia. — Rogovik A, Goldman R Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2008)
    42. [42]
      Survey of sedation practices during noninvasive positive-pressure ventilation to treat acute respiratory failure. — Devlin JW, Nava S, Fong JJ, Bahhady I, Hill NS Critical care medicine (2007)
    43. [43]
      Remifentanil-based sedation to treat noninvasive ventilation failure: a preliminary study. — Constantin JM, Schneider E, Cayot-Constantin S, Guerin R, Bannier F, Futier E et al. Intensive care medicine (2007)
    44. [44]
      Occurrence of pneumothorax during noninvasive positive pressure ventilation through a helmet. — Carron M, Gagliardi G, Michielan F, Freo U, Ori C Journal of clinical anesthesia (2007)
    45. [45]
      Nonpulmonary organ dysfunction and its impact on outcome in patients with acute respiratory failure. — Aggarwal AN, Agarwal R, Gupta D, Jindal SK Chest (2007)
    46. [46]
      Recently published papers: a number of treatment controversies. — Williams G Critical care (London, England) (2003)
    47. [47]
      Contributions to the epidemiology of acute respiratory failure. — Lewandowski K Critical care (London, England) (2003)
    48. [48]
      Outcome after acute respiratory failure is more dependent on dysfunction in other vital organs than on the severity of the respiratory failure. — Flaatten H, Gjerde S, Guttormsen AB, Haugen O, Høivik T, Onarheim H et al. Critical care (London, England) (2003)
    49. [49]
      The epidemiology of acute respiratory failure in critically ill patients(*). — Vincent JL, Akça S, De Mendonça A, Haji-Michael P, Sprung C, Moreno R et al. Chest (2002)
    50. [50]
      Non-invasive ventilation for frail elderly patients with acute respiratory failure. — Scheirlinckx K, Vanpee D, Swine C Aging (Milan, Italy) (2001)
    51. [51]
      Predictive value of microalbuminuria in medical ICU patients: results of a pilot study. — Abid O, Sun Q, Sugimoto K, Mercan D, Vincent JL Chest (2001)
    52. [52]
      The measurement of the pressure-volume curves with computerized methods. — Servillo G, Coppola M, Blasi F, Tufano R Minerva anestesiologica (2000)
    53. [53]
      Respiratory pearls, pitfalls, and updates. — Fermann GJ, Pollack CV Emergency medicine clinics of North America (1997)
    54. [54]
      New regimens in the management of posttraumatic respiratory failure. — O'Keefe GE, Maier RV Current opinion in pulmonary medicine (1997)
    55. [55]
      Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO) as lung or heart assist. — Bjertnaes L, Vaage J, Almdahl SM, Lie M, Nilsen PA, Hansen K et al. Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica (1996)
    56. [56]
      Sedation and chemical relaxation in critical pulmonary illness: suggestions for patient assessment and drug monitoring. — Luer JM AACN clinical issues (1995)
    57. [57]
      Blood gases, electrolytes and metabolic monitoring in children with acute failure of vital functions. — Iluchev D, Kostianev S, Atanassov A, Lazarov S Acta anaesthesiologica Scandinavica. Supplementum (1995)
    58. [58]
      Combined acute respiratory and renal failure: management by continuous hemodiafiltration. — Bellomo R, Farmer M, Boyce N Resuscitation (1994)
    59. [59]
      Changes in ceruloplasmin activity and lactate concentration in patients at high risk of acute organ system failure. — Dauberschmidt R, Mrochen H, Förster I, Stumpe C, Dressler C, Grajetzki H et al. Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry (1991)
    60. [60]
      Pressure and flow limitations of anesthesia ventilators. — Marks JD, Schapera A, Kraemer RW, Katz JA Anesthesiology (1989)
    61. [61]
      The effects of vasodilation with prostacyclin on oxygen delivery and uptake in critically ill patients. — Bihari D, Smithies M, Gimson A, Tinker J The New England journal of medicine (1987)
    62. [62]
      A prospective study of acute hypoxic respiratory failure. — Bartlett RH, Morris AH, Fairley HB, Hirsch R, O'Connor N, Pontoppidan H Chest (1986)
    Share:TwitterRedditLinkedIn

    HemoChat

    by SPINAI

    Evidence-based clinical decision support powered by SNOMED-CT, Neo4j GraphRAG, and NASS/AO/NICE guidelines.

    ⚕ For clinical reference only. Not a substitute for professional judgment.

    © 2026 HemoChat. All rights reserved.
    Research·Pricing·Privacy & Terms·Refund·SNOMED-CT · NASS · AO Spine · NICE · GraphRAG