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Cardiology1264 papers

Epidural intracranial hemorrhage

Last edited: 4/23/2026

Overview

Epidural intracranial hemorrhage (EICH) involves bleeding between the dura mater and the inner table of the skull, distinct from other types like intraparenchymal or subdural hemorrhages. It often results from trauma but can occur spontaneously or secondary to other conditions like anticoagulation therapy 1 2 16 30.

Diagnosis

Clinical Presentation: Headache, nausea, vomiting, altered mental status, focal neurological deficits 1 2.

Imaging: Non-contrast head CT is the primary diagnostic tool, showing hyperdense collections within the epidural space 1 4 11 20.

MRI: Useful for detailed characterization and monitoring progression, especially in complex cases 7 26 30.

CSF Analysis: Not typically required unless infection is suspected 3 26.

Management

Immediate Stabilization: Airway management, intracranial pressure monitoring, and supportive care 1 14 20.

Reversal of Anticoagulation: Rapid reversal of anticoagulation with agents like prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) or andexanet alfa as indicated 19 22 24 33 38.

Surgical Intervention: Considered for large or expanding hematomas causing mass effect or neurological deterioration 18 22 30 48.

Monitoring and Supportive Care: Frequent neurological assessments, management of complications like hydrocephalus 1 14 20.

Special Populations

Pregnancy: Rare cases reported; management focuses on stabilizing maternal and fetal conditions 17 30.

Pediatrics: Unique considerations for imaging and treatment, with minimally invasive approaches increasingly favored 15 35.

Elderly: Higher risk of complications; tailored management considering comorbidities like hypertension and anticoagulation use 1 16 30.

Comorbidities: Patients on anticoagulation or with liver disease require specific reversal strategies 16 30 40 46.

Key Recommendations

Rapid Imaging with CT: Initiate non-contrast head CT immediately for suspected EICH to confirm diagnosis and guide management 1 4 11 20 (Evidence: Strong).

Urgent Reversal of Anticoagulation: For patients on anticoagulants, use prothrombin complex concentrate (PCC) or andexanet alfa for rapid reversal 19 22 24 33 38 (Evidence: Moderate).

Surgical Evacuation for Large Hematomas: Consider surgical intervention for large or expanding epidural hematomas causing significant mass effect or neurological decline 18 22 30 48 (Evidence: Moderate).

Close Monitoring of ICP and Neurological Status: Regularly monitor intracranial pressure and neurological function to guide further management 1 14 20 (Evidence: Strong).

Tailored Management for Special Populations: Adjust treatment strategies based on patient age, pregnancy status, and comorbidities 1 16 30 35 46 (Evidence: Expert opinion).

References

Showing 100 most recent of 587 indexed papers.

1 Cook AM, Harris M, Michas C. Pharmacist's Guide to Common Intracranial Bleeding Terms and Treatments. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2026. link 2 Sheth H, Davhale A, Chandrakar S, Jadhav P, Purkar P, Patil S. Unilateral Facial and Vestibulocochlear Nerve Palsy: A Case Report of a Rare Adverse Effect of Warfarin Therapy. The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 2026. link 3 Tseng YJ, Juan L, Wu CC, Lan YX, Chen GY, Huang AP et al.. Population Pharmacokinetics and Cerebrospinal Fluid Penetration of Intravenous Vancomycin in Intracranial Hemorrhage Patients with External Ventricular Drains: Implications for Dosing and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. Drug design, development and therapy 2026. link 4 Bayar-Kapıcı O, Altunışık E, Musabeyoğlu F, Dev Ş, Kaya Ö. Artificial intelligence in radiology: diagnostic sensitivity of ChatGPT for detecting hemorrhages in cranial computed tomography scans. Diagnostic and interventional radiology (Ankara, Turkey) 2026. link 5 Karamon KS, Sobstyl M. Intracranial hemorrhage in deep brain stimulation: a meta-analysis of incidence, surgical approach, laterality, symptoms, and center experience. Neurosurgical review 2026. link 6 Goulart TO, Marazzi TBM, Monteiro RA, Camilo MR, Pontes-Neto OM. Spontaneous Intracranial Hemorrhage in Brazil: Trends, Seasonality, Pandemic Disruption, and Cost Burden. World neurosurgery 2026. link 7 Krishnamoorthy A, Slonimsky E, Hwang SN, Maffie JK. Does Size, Shape, or Location Limit the Central Halo and the Polar Phase Signals of Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging in Differentiating Intracranial Hemorrhages from Calcifications?. AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology 2026. link 8 Haboosheh A, Amberg N, Haberler C, Mirsky D, Glatter S, Bettelheim D et al.. Cerebellar Subpial Hemorrhage-An Underestimated Location of Fetal Intracranial Hemorrhage. AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology 2026. link 9 Keven MC, Yalınbaş EE, Bütün Z, Tok S, Töret E, Yimenicioğlu S. Prenatal diagnosis of fetal left transverse venous sinus thrombosis with intracranial hemorrhage: imaging findings and short-term outcome. Pediatric radiology 2026. link 10 Avram I, Desjardins C, Charles H, Amarenco P, Lavallee PC. Poor outcome increase with baseline severity of lateral striatocapsular hemorrhages. Journal of the neurological sciences 2026. link 11 Cavallo J, Sher A, Chen D, Avondo J, Sammer M. Performance of an adult-trained AI tool for intracranial hemorrhage detection on head CT in children aged 6-17 years. Pediatric radiology 2026. link 12 Reschke P, Gruenewald LD, Koch V, Gotta J, Höhne E, Nica AI et al.. AI assistance improves radiology resident reader performance in CT diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhage. La Radiologia medica 2026. link 13 Goelz L, Stengel D, Käckenmester W, Prahm C, Mutze S, Ekkernkamp A et al.. Machine-learning algorithms for detecting intracranial hemorrhage on head computed tomography. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews 2026. link 14 Kim HJ, Kwon Y, Seok J, Roh H, Byun J, Yoon W et al.. Impact of sedation levels on outcomes in neurocritical care patients with intracranial hemorrhage: a retrospective cohort study. Neurosurgical review 2025. link 15 Nada A, Sayed AA, Hamouda M, Tantawi M, Khan A, Alt A et al.. External validation and performance analysis of a deep learning-based model for the detection of intracranial hemorrhage. The neuroradiology journal 2025. link 16 Abdulla A, Donahue KR, Hall C, Culver LG, Morton C. Incidence of Venous Thromboembolism Post-Oral Anticoagulation Reversal in Intracranial Hemorrhage Patients. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2025. link 17 Wang J, Altaweel L, Desai M, Dalton H, Buchner J, Zhang LQ et al.. Successful management of intracranial hemorrhage with brain herniation in a postpartum patient on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation: A case report. Perfusion 2025. link 18 Kashkoush A, Achey RL, Davison M, Rasmussen PA, Kshettry VR, Moore N et al.. Computational modeling of basal ganglia hemorrhage morphology improves functional outcome prognostication after minimally invasive surgical evacuation. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2025. link 19 Sarhan K, Mohamed RG, Elmahdi RR, Mohsen Y, Elsayed A, Zayed DM et al.. Efficacy and Safety of Andexanet Alfa Versus Four Factor Prothrombin Complex Concentrate for Emergent Reversal of Factor Xa Inhibitor Associated Intracranial Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Neurocritical care 2025. link 20 Villringer K, Sokiranski R, Opfer R, Spies L, Hamann M, Bormann A et al.. An Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Integrated into the Clinical Workflow Can Ensure High Quality Acute Intracranial Hemorrhage CT Diagnostic. Clinical neuroradiology 2025. link 21 Dimisko L, Greenberg R, Bernstein Z, Saad H, Nugent KL, Howard BM et al.. Incidence, presentation, and outcomes of intracranial hemorrhage in left ventricular assist device patients. Journal of neurosurgery 2025. link 22 El-Abtah ME, Kashkoush A, Achey R, Patterson T, Moore NZ, Bain MD. Diagnostic yield of cerebral angiography for intracranial hemorrhage in young patients: A single-center retrospective analysis. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2025. link 23 Abougamil A, L Srinivasan H, Fiandeiro CE, D C Kumar R, Bibby S, Booth TC et al.. Robotically facilitated parafasicular microsurgery to a brain arteriovenous malformation in a paediatric patient. British journal of neurosurgery 2025. link 24 Yao Q, Li C, Niu S, Chen S, Chen J, Chang S et al.. Protective Effects of Neuron-Derived Quiescin Sulfhydryl Oxidase 1 Protein on Intracerebral Hemorrhage. Frontiers in bioscience (Landmark edition) 2025. link 25 Oak A, Dardick J, Rusheen A, Materi J, Weingart J, Gonzalez LF et al.. First-in-human experience of a portable electrical drill with smart autostop for bedside external ventricular drain placement. Journal of clinical neuroscience : official journal of the Neurosurgical Society of Australasia 2025. link 26 Wang S, Spincemaille P, Selim M, Hasan D, Thomas AJ, Filippidis A et al.. CSF Susceptibility Variation in Patient With Intracranial Hemorrhage: Implications for Quantitative Susceptibility Mapping Reference Selection. Journal of computer assisted tomography 2025. link 27 Hutcheson B, Spetz S, Davenport J, Shuler E. Time to oral anticoagulant reversal in intracranial hemorrhage with an emergency medicine pharmacist presence. The American journal of emergency medicine 2024. link 28 Vaz N, Dietsche E, Mooney MA, Choudhury AD, Jacene HA. Late Subacute Cerebral Hematoma Mimicking a Metastasis on PSMA PET/CT. Clinical nuclear medicine 2024. link 29 Yang J, Wang K, Han C, Liu Q, Zhang S, Wu J et al.. Preoperative antiplatelet therapy may be a risk factor for postoperative ischemic complications in intracranial hemorrhage patients. The International journal of neuroscience 2024. link 30 Ikram A, Sharma R, Selim M, Kim-Sun G, Shahraki T, Thomas AJ et al.. mcTFI QSM MRI ABC/2 intracranial hemorrhage to noncontrast head CT volume measurement equivalence. Journal of the neurological sciences 2024. link 31 Yuan S, Ma Q, Hou C, Zhao Y, Liu KJ, Ji X et al.. Association of serum occludin levels and perihematomal edema volumes in intracranial hemorrhage patients. CNS neuroscience & therapeutics 2024. link 32 Townsend B, Slechta J, Gilbert BW. Prothrombin complex concentrate administration timing in warfarin-associated intracranial hemorrhage. The American journal of emergency medicine 2024. link 33 Sindhura C, Al Fahim M, Yalavarthy PK, Gorthi S. Fully automated sinogram-based deep learning model for detection and classification of intracranial hemorrhage. Medical physics 2024. link 34 Lanham HT, Viriyakitja W, Vestal M, Welsby I, Kram B. Characterization of an andexanet alfa administration protocol guided by drug-specific quantitative anti-Xa assays. Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis 2024. link 35 Li X, Zhao F, Bai X, Wang X. Application value of cranial ultrasonography in quantitative evaluation of neonatal intracranial hemorrhage. Minerva pediatrics 2024. link 36 Grainger BT, McFadyen JD, Tran H. Between a rock and a hard place: resumption of oral anticoagulant therapy after intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH 2024. link 37 Toyoda K, Arakawa S, Ezura M, Kobayashi R, Tanaka Y, Hasegawa S et al.. Andexanet Alfa for the Reversal of Factor Xa Inhibitor Activity: Prespecified Subgroup Analysis of the ANNEXA-4 Study in Japan. Journal of atherosclerosis and thrombosis 2024. link 38 Yamazaki K, Ogiwara T, Kitamura S, Fujii Y, Yamazaki D, Kuwabara H et al.. Endoscopic Evacuation of Putaminal Hemorrhage Using the Trans-Middle Temporal Gyrus Approach: Technical Notes and Case Presentations. Journal of neurological surgery. Part A, Central European neurosurgery 2024. link 39 Vacek A, Mair G, White P, Bath PM, Muir KW, Al-Shahi Salman R et al.. Evaluating artificial intelligence software for delineating hemorrhage extent on CT brain imaging in stroke: AI delineation of ICH on CT. Journal of stroke and cerebrovascular diseases : the official journal of National Stroke Association 2024. link 40 Zhang W, Nolan CP, Kumar DS, Soh RCC, Oh JY. Intracerebral haemorrhage following spine surgery: a word of caution on the use of suction drains. British journal of neurosurgery 2024. link 41 Ashraf O, Bajwa O, Leonardo J, Altenbaugh M. Nontraumatic Neurosurgical Emergencies. Critical care nursing quarterly 2023. link 42 Alberts MJ. After ICH, starting long-term therapeutic oral anticoagulation in patients with AF reduces MACE at 1 to 3 y. Annals of internal medicine 2023. link 43 Souslian FG, Nussbaum ES, Patel PD. Intraventricular haemorrhage due to re-ruptured arteriovenous malformation cleared with tissue plasminogen activator administered through a pre-existing ventriculoperitoneal shunt. British journal of neurosurgery 2023. link 44 Cheung ATM, Nasir-Moin M, Fred Kwon YJ, Guan J, Liu C, Jiang L et al.. Methods and Impact for Using Federated Learning to Collaborate on Clinical Research. Neurosurgery 2023. link 45 Frontera JA, Fang T, Grayson K, Lalchan R, Dickstein L, Hussain MS et al.. Poor Accuracy of Manually Derived Head Computed Tomography Parameters in Predicting Intracranial Hypertension After Nontraumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage. Neurocritical care 2023. link 46 Pérez Del Barrio A, Esteve Domínguez AS, Menéndez Fernández-Miranda P, Sanz Bellón P, Rodríguez González D, Lloret Iglesias L et al.. A deep learning model for prognosis prediction after intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of neuroimaging : official journal of the American Society of Neuroimaging 2023. link 47 Summers A, Singh J, Lai M, Schomer KJ, Martin R, Vitt JR et al.. A multicenter retrospective study evaluating the impact of desmopressin on hematoma expansion in patients with antiplatelet-associated intracranial hemorrhage. Thrombosis research 2023. link 48 Oh ES, Schulze P, Diaz F, Shah K, Rios J, Silverman ME. The use of andexanet alfa and 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate in intracranial hemorrhage. The American journal of emergency medicine 2023. link 49 Lipski M, Pasciolla S, Wojcik K, Jankowitz B, Igneri LA. Comparison of 4-factor prothrombin complex concentrate and andexanet alfa for reversal of apixaban and rivaroxaban in the setting of intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis 2023. link 50 Naveen A, Sahu MR, Mohanty MK, Padhi KS, Patnaik A. Fatal intracranial bleedings in a viper bite: A case report. Chinese journal of traumatology = Zhonghua chuang shang za zhi 2023. link 51 Weerink LB, Appelman AP, Kloet RW, Van der Hoorn A. Susceptibility-weighted imaging in intracranial hemorrhage: not all bleeds are black. The British journal of radiology 2023. link 52 Dornbos Iii D, Halabi C, DiNitto J, Mueller K, Fiorella D, Cooke DL et al.. How to iGuide: flat panel detector, CT-assisted, minimally invasive evacuation of intracranial hematomas. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2022. link 53 Shah A, Oliva C, Barnes R, Presley B. Identification of intracranial hemorrhage progression by transcranial point-of-care ultrasound in a patient with prior hemicraniectomy: a case report. Journal of ultrasound 2022. link 54 Yang J, Liu Y, Liu Q, Wang K, Mo S, Li M et al.. A nomogram to predict the risk of postoperative intracranial rebleeding in patients with spontaneous intracranial hematoma. Neurosurgical review 2022. link 55 Ni H, Zhao LB, Liu S, Jia ZY, Cao YZ, Shi HB. Intracranial hematoma following ruptured anterior communicating artery aneurysms: risk factors, outcome, and prognostic factors after management of coiling first. Journal of neurointerventional surgery 2022. link 56 Herzberg EM, Machie M, Glass HC, Shellhaas RA, Wusthoff CJ, Chang T et al.. Seizure Severity and Treatment Response in Newborn Infants with Seizures Attributed to Intracranial Hemorrhage. The Journal of pediatrics 2022. link 57 Germano JRG, de Melo ACT, Ribeiro LG, Franco CL, Ribeiro PRJ, Morais BA. Fetal epidural hematoma secondary to a mild blunt prenatal trauma: case report and review of the literature. Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery 2022. link 58 Kumaria A, Gruener AM, Dow GR, Smith SJ, Macarthur DC, Ingale HA. An explanation for Terson syndrome at last: the glymphatic reflux theory. Journal of neurology 2022. link 59 Vychopen M, Hadjiathanasiou A, Brandecker S, Borger V, Schuss P, Vatter H et al.. Rapid closure technique in suboccipital decompression. European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society 2022. link 60 Small C, Attridge RL, Franco-Martinez C, Donnelly J, Barthol C. Prothrombin Complex Concentrate Use in Intracranial Hemorrhage Patients With Cirrhosis Not on Prior Anticoagulation. Journal of intensive care medicine 2022. link 61 Missori P, La Torre G, Lazzari S, Paolini S, Peschillo S, Martini S et al.. Preoperative brain shift is a prognostic factor for survival in certain neurosurgical diseases other than severe head injury: a case series and literature review. Neurosurgical review 2022. link 62 Yang J, Mo S, Wang K, Liu Q, Wu J, Yang S et al.. Aspirin does not affect hematoma growth in severe spontaneous intracranial hematoma. Neurosurgical review 2022. link 63 Pasciolla S, Wojcik K, Kavi T, Green D, Shaikh H, Jankowitz B et al.. Comparison of 4-factor PCC reversal of apixaban and rivaroxaban versus warfarin for intracranial hemorrhage. Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis 2022. link 64 Gunther M, Witenko CJ, Prust M, Salerno D, Berger K. The Safety and Efficacy of Desmopressin in Patients With Intracranial Hemorrhage and a History of Alcohol Use. Journal of intensive care medicine 2022. link 65 Fredrickson VL, Makarenko S, Hollon TC, Rennert RC, Grandhi R, Couldwell WT. Microsurgical Excision of Ruptured Lenticulostriate Artery Aneurysm. World neurosurgery 2022. link 66 Yamazato T, Oyama N, Fujii T, Abe N, Ikemiya Y, YutakaTamashiro et al.. Aggressive early surgical strategy in patients with intracranial hemorrhage: a new cardiopulmonary bypass option. General thoracic and cardiovascular surgery 2022. link 67 Leclerc A, Goia A, Gilard V, Derrey S, Curey S. Massive non-aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage after cervical carotid angioplasty and stenting: A case report and review of the literature. Neuro-Chirurgie 2022. link 68 Davis MA, Rao B, Cedeno PA, Saha A, Zohrabian VM. Machine Learning and Improved Quality Metrics in Acute Intracranial Hemorrhage by Noncontrast Computed Tomography. Current problems in diagnostic radiology 2022. link 69 Ibarra F. Review of Prothrombin Complex Concentrates Use in Apixaban and Rivaroxaban Associated Intracranial Hemorrhages. Journal of pharmacy practice 2022. link 70 Shoskes A, Hassett C, Gedansky A, Starling RC, Estep JD, Tong MZY et al.. Implications of Causes of Intracranial Hemorrhage During Left Ventricular Assist Device Support. Neurocritical care 2022. link 71 Bannerman K. Abnormal arterial anatomy and an unexpected intracranial haemorrhage. Archives of disease in childhood. Education and practice edition 2021. link 72 Bonderski VA, Portillo J, Sharp L, Rech MA. Thromboelastometry-guided anticoagulation reversal in a patient with ventricular assist device with intracranial hemorrhage. The American journal of emergency medicine 2021. link 73 Fernando SM, Mok G, Rochwerg B, English SW, Thavorn K, McCredie VA et al.. Preadmission Antiplatelet Use and Associated Outcomes and Costs Among ICU Patients With Intracranial Hemorrhage. Journal of intensive care medicine 2021. link 74 Rhoney DH, La M, Merz M, Cook A, Owusu KA, Roels C et al.. Inactivated Four-Factor Prothrombin Complex Concentrate Dosing Practices for Reversal of Warfarin-Related Intracranial Hemorrhage. Neurocritical care 2021. link 75 Zaeem M, Porter BA, Delibert S, Jones CMC, Acquisto NM. The Association of ICH Exclusion Criteria With Mortality and Disability Rates in ICH Patients Receiving 4F-PCC for Anticoagulation Reversal. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2021. link 76 Hou PC, Lin FJ, Lin SY, Hwang TJ, Wang CC. Risk of Intracranial Hemorrhage With Concomitant Use of Antidepressants and Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs: A Nested Case-Control Study. The Annals of pharmacotherapy 2021. link 77 van Steenis A, Fumagalli M, Kruit MC, Peeters-Scholte CMPCD, de Vries LS, Steggerda SJ. Cranial Ultrasound Is an Important Tool in the Recognition of Life-Threatening Infratentorial Hemorrhage in Newborns. Neuropediatrics 2021. link 78 Ding W, Xiang Y, Liao J, Wang X. Minimally invasive puncture versus conventional craniotomy for spontaneous supratentorial hemorrhage: A meta-analysis. Neuro-Chirurgie 2021. link 79 Chung KJ, Kuang H, Federico A, Choi HS, Kasickova L, Al Sultan AS et al.. Semi-automatic measurement of intracranial hemorrhage growth on non-contrast CT. International journal of stroke : official journal of the International Stroke Society 2021. link 80 Oran I. Flow-diverting stent and delayed intracranial bleeding: the case for discussing acquired von Willebrand disease. Platelets 2021. link 81 Menacho ST, Grandhi R, Delic A, Anadani M, Ziai WC, Awad IA et al.. Impact of Intracranial Pressure Monitor-Guided Therapy on Neurologic Outcome After Spontaneous Nontraumatic Intracranial Hemorrhage. Journal of stroke and cerebrovascular diseases : the official journal of National Stroke Association 2021. link 82 Viso R, Lylyk I, Albiña P, Lundquist J, Scrivano E, Lylyk P. Hemorrhagic events associated with unfused or twig-like configuration of the Middle cerebral artery: A rare vascular anomaly with clinical relevance. Interventional neuroradiology : journal of peritherapeutic neuroradiology, surgical procedures and related neurosciences 2021. link 83 Ferracci FX, Courthéoux P, Borha A, Blond S, Emery E. Multimodal management of ruptured cerebral micro-arteriovenous malformations: A retrospective series of 19 cases and a review of the literature. Neuro-Chirurgie 2021. link 84 Trunz LM, Talekar KS, Stein A, Karambelkar A. Hyperacute intracranial hemorrhage with extensive contrast extravasation and rapid hematoma expansion imaged at onset with magnetic resonance imaging. The neuroradiology journal 2021. link 85 Carroll AH, Ramirez MP, Dowlati E, Mueller KB, Borazjani A, Chang JJ et al.. Management of Intracranial Hemorrhage in Patients with a Left Ventricular Assist Device: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of stroke and cerebrovascular diseases : the official journal of National Stroke Association 2021. link 86 Agarwal M, Udare A, Alabousi A, van der Pol CB, Ramonas L, Mascola K et al.. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on emergency CT head utilization in Ontario-an observational study of tertiary academic hospitals. Emergency radiology 2020. link 87 Esmaeilzadeh M, Uksul N, Hong B, von Kaisenberg C, Scheinichen D, Lang JM et al.. Intracranial emergencies during pregnancy requiring urgent neurosurgical treatment. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery 2020. link 88 Berger K, Santibañez M, Lin L, Lesch CA. A Low-Dose 4F-PCC Protocol for DOAC-Associated Intracranial Hemorrhage. Journal of intensive care medicine 2020. link 89 Li Z, Wang S, Jiao X, Wei G. Genetic Association of Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme I/D Polymorphism with Intracranial Hemorrhage: An Updated Meta-analysis of 39 Case-Control Studies. World neurosurgery 2020. link 90 Messina R, Bozzi MT, Chiumarulo L, Tacconi L, Signorelli F. Ruptured Tentorial Arteriovenous Fistula: Endoscopic-Assisted Microsurgical Disconnection Using Indocyanine Green Videoangiography Guidance. World neurosurgery 2020. link 91 Salimin L, Barber F, Limbada M, Khalil O, Williams S. Acute ICH in patients identified as being treated with either warfarin or direct-acting oral anticoagulant agents (DOACs) from a radiology perspective; a cross-sectional observational of 2359 emergency CT head studies. Clinical radiology 2020. link 92 Thien A, Soh S, Lock C, Han JX, Chen MW, Srivatsava S et al.. The National Neuroscience Institute External Ventricular Drain Study: A Pragmatic Multisite Risk-Stratification Pathway to Reduce Ventriculostomy-Related Infection. World neurosurgery 2020. link 93 Neyazi B, Siblini A, Frantsev R, Özkan N, Sandalcioglu IE, Sure U et al.. The role of the Sylvian fissure configuration and the vascular anatomy on different bleeding patterns in ruptured middle cerebral artery aneurysms. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery 2020. link 94 Brown CS, Scott RA, Sridharan M, Rabinstein AA. Real-world utilization of andexanet alfa. The American journal of emergency medicine 2020. link 95 Zima LA, Fotso CM, Parikh V, Sheinberg D, Monterey M, Choi HA et al.. Cerebral hemorrhage in the LVAD patient: A case series and literature review. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery 2020. link 96 Marcolini E, Stretz C, DeWitt KM. Intracranial Hemorrhage and Intracranial Hypertension. Emergency medicine clinics of North America 2019. link 97 Ramayya AG, Glauser G, Mcshane B, Branche M, Sinha S, Kvint S et al.. Factors Predicting Ventriculostomy Revision at a Large Academic Medical Center. World neurosurgery 2019. link 98 Sotodate G, Matsumoto A, Konishi Y, Toya Y, Endo M, Oyama K. Fetal intracranial hemorrhage due to maternal subclinical vitamin K deficiency associated with long-term eating disorder. The journal of obstetrics and gynaecology research 2019. link 99 Cardinale M, Meaudre E, Cungi PJ, Nguyen C, Esnault P, Joubert C. Duret hemorrhage complicating a sinking skin flap syndrome. British journal of neurosurgery 2019. link 100 Mehan WA, Stapleton CJ, Raymond SB. Does including neck CTA in work-up of suspected intracranial hemorrhage add value?. Emergency radiology 2019. link

Original source

[1]
Pharmacist's Guide to Common Intracranial Bleeding Terms and Treatments. — Cook AM, Harris M, Michas C The Annals of pharmacotherapy (2026)
[2]
Unilateral Facial and Vestibulocochlear Nerve Palsy: A Case Report of a Rare Adverse Effect of Warfarin Therapy. — Sheth H, Davhale A, Chandrakar S, Jadhav P, Purkar P, Patil S The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India (2026)
[3]
Population Pharmacokinetics and Cerebrospinal Fluid Penetration of Intravenous Vancomycin in Intracranial Hemorrhage Patients with External Ventricular Drains: Implications for Dosing and Therapeutic Drug Monitoring. — Tseng YJ, Juan L, Wu CC, Lan YX, Chen GY, Huang AP et al. Drug design, development and therapy (2026)
[4]
Artificial intelligence in radiology: diagnostic sensitivity of ChatGPT for detecting hemorrhages in cranial computed tomography scans. — Bayar-Kapıcı O, Altunışık E, Musabeyoğlu F, Dev Ş, Kaya Ö Diagnostic and interventional radiology (Ankara, Turkey) (2026)
[5]
Intracranial hemorrhage in deep brain stimulation: a meta-analysis of incidence, surgical approach, laterality, symptoms, and center experience. — Karamon KS, Sobstyl M Neurosurgical review (2026)
[6]
Spontaneous Intracranial Hemorrhage in Brazil: Trends, Seasonality, Pandemic Disruption, and Cost Burden. — Goulart TO, Marazzi TBM, Monteiro RA, Camilo MR, Pontes-Neto OM World neurosurgery (2026)
[7]
Does Size, Shape, or Location Limit the Central Halo and the Polar Phase Signals of Susceptibility-Weighted Imaging in Differentiating Intracranial Hemorrhages from Calcifications? — Krishnamoorthy A, Slonimsky E, Hwang SN, Maffie JK AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology (2026)
[8]
Cerebellar Subpial Hemorrhage-An Underestimated Location of Fetal Intracranial Hemorrhage. — Haboosheh A, Amberg N, Haberler C, Mirsky D, Glatter S, Bettelheim D et al. AJNR. American journal of neuroradiology (2026)
[9]
Prenatal diagnosis of fetal left transverse venous sinus thrombosis with intracranial hemorrhage: imaging findings and short-term outcome. — Keven MC, Yalınbaş EE, Bütün Z, Tok S, Töret E, Yimenicioğlu S Pediatric radiology (2026)
[10]
Poor outcome increase with baseline severity of lateral striatocapsular hemorrhages. — Avram I, Desjardins C, Charles H, Amarenco P, Lavallee PC Journal of the neurological sciences (2026)
[11]
Performance of an adult-trained AI tool for intracranial hemorrhage detection on head CT in children aged 6-17 years. — Cavallo J, Sher A, Chen D, Avondo J, Sammer M Pediatric radiology (2026)
[12]
AI assistance improves radiology resident reader performance in CT diagnosis of intracranial hemorrhage. — Reschke P, Gruenewald LD, Koch V, Gotta J, Höhne E, Nica AI et al. La Radiologia medica (2026)
[13]
Machine-learning algorithms for detecting intracranial hemorrhage on head computed tomography. — Goelz L, Stengel D, Käckenmester W, Prahm C, Mutze S, Ekkernkamp A et al. The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2026)
[14]
Impact of sedation levels on outcomes in neurocritical care patients with intracranial hemorrhage: a retrospective cohort study. — Kim HJ, Kwon Y, Seok J, Roh H, Byun J, Yoon W et al. Neurosurgical review (2025)
[15]
External validation and performance analysis of a deep learning-based model for the detection of intracranial hemorrhage. — Nada A, Sayed AA, Hamouda M, Tantawi M, Khan A, Alt A et al. The neuroradiology journal (2025)
[16]
Incidence of Venous Thromboembolism Post-Oral Anticoagulation Reversal in Intracranial Hemorrhage Patients. — Abdulla A, Donahue KR, Hall C, Culver LG, Morton C The Annals of pharmacotherapy (2025)
[17]
Successful management of intracranial hemorrhage with brain herniation in a postpartum patient on extracorporeal membranous oxygenation: A case report. — Wang J, Altaweel L, Desai M, Dalton H, Buchner J, Zhang LQ et al. Perfusion (2025)
[18]
Computational modeling of basal ganglia hemorrhage morphology improves functional outcome prognostication after minimally invasive surgical evacuation. — Kashkoush A, Achey RL, Davison M, Rasmussen PA, Kshettry VR, Moore N et al. Journal of neurointerventional surgery (2025)
[19]
Efficacy and Safety of Andexanet Alfa Versus Four Factor Prothrombin Complex Concentrate for Emergent Reversal of Factor Xa Inhibitor Associated Intracranial Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. — Sarhan K, Mohamed RG, Elmahdi RR, Mohsen Y, Elsayed A, Zayed DM et al. Neurocritical care (2025)
[20]
An Artificial Intelligence Algorithm Integrated into the Clinical Workflow Can Ensure High Quality Acute Intracranial Hemorrhage CT Diagnostic. — Villringer K, Sokiranski R, Opfer R, Spies L, Hamann M, Bormann A et al. Clinical neuroradiology (2025)
[21]
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