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Nicotine withdrawal

Last edited: 4/13/2026

Overview

Nicotine withdrawal is a set of symptoms experienced by individuals attempting to quit smoking, characterized by physical and psychological symptoms including irritability, anxiety, craving, and difficulty concentrating 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364.

Diagnosis

  • Symptoms include irritability, anxiety, craving, difficulty concentrating, and potential gastrointestinal issues 1.
  • No specific diagnostic tests; clinical assessment is key 12345678910111213141516171819202122232425262728293031323334353637383940414243444546474849505152535455565758596061626364.

    • Management

  • First-line treatments: Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) such as patches, gum, lozenges, and inhalers 49112429303438454950535558606264.
  • Adjunctive treatments: Varenicline and bupropion (Zyban) for those not adequately responding to NRT 222324345058.
  • Behavioral support: Counseling and behavioral interventions significantly enhance cessation rates 123456789101112131415161718192021252627283132333536373940414243444647485152545657596163.

    • Special Populations

  • Pregnancy: Nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) is considered safer than smoking during pregnancy, though use should be carefully monitored 4911243034455053556062.
  • Pediatrics: Focus on prevention and parental smoking cessation to protect children from secondhand smoke 315335456.
  • Elderly: Similar management approaches as other adults, with emphasis on comorbidities and polypharmacy considerations 12345678910111213141617181920212223252627282931323536373940414243444647484951525457596163.

    • Key Recommendations

  • Utilize nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) as first-line pharmacological treatment for nicotine withdrawal [Evidence:

    • References

    1 Sun H, Chen J, Wu X, Wang Z. Sex-stratified pharmacovigilance of gastrointestinal events associated with first-line smoking-cessation medicines: Insights from the FAERS database. PloS one 2025. link 2 van Amsterdam J, van den Brink W. The effect of alcohol use on smoking cessation: A systematic review. Alcohol (Fayetteville, N.Y.) 2023. link 3 Heris CL, Cutmore M, Chamberlain C, Smith N, Simpson V, Sherriff S et al.. Don't Follow the Smoke-Listening to the Tobacco Experiences and Attitudes of Urban Aboriginal Adolescents in the Study of Environment on Aboriginal Resilience and Child Health (SEARCH). International journal of environmental research and public health 2023. link 4 Blanc J, Tosello B, Ekblad MO, Berlin I, Netter A. Nicotine Replacement Therapy during Pregnancy and Child Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review. International journal of environmental research and public health 2021. link 5 Signes-Costa J, de Granda-Orive JI, Ramos Pinedo Á, Camarasa Escrig A, de Higes Martínez E, Rábade Castedo C et al.. Official Statement of the Spanish Society of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery (SEPAR) on Electronic Cigarettes and IQOS®. Archivos de bronconeumologia 2019. link 6 Bals R, Boyd J, Esposito S, Foronjy R, Hiemstra PS, Jiménez-Ruiz CA et al.. Electronic cigarettes: a task force report from the European Respiratory Society. The European respiratory journal 2019. link 7 Cheng HM, Liu WC, Chua G, Liew CF, Li W, Choo W et al.. Impact of a pharmacy-led smoking cessation clinic in a dermatology centre. Singapore medical journal 2019. link 8 Rigotti NA, Clair C. Weight gain after smoking cessation: more data to refute concerns. European heart journal 2018. link 9 Bar-Zeev Y, Bonevski B, Gruppetta M, Twyman L, Atkins L, Palazzi K et al.. Clinician factors associated with prescribing nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy: A cross-sectional survey of Australian obstetricians and general practitioners. The Australian & New Zealand journal of obstetrics & gynaecology 2018. link 10 Hayes KA, Jackson C, Dickinson DM, Miller AL. Providing Antismoking Socialization to Children After Quitting Smoking: Does It Help Parents Stay Quit?. American journal of health promotion : AJHP 2018. link 11 Dautzenberg B, Adler M, Garelik D, Loubrieu JF, Mathern G, Peiffer G et al.. Practical guidelines on e-cigarettes for practitioners and others health professionals. A French 2016 expert's statement. Revue des maladies respiratoires 2017. link 12 Zeev YB, Bonevski B, Twyman L, Watt K, Atkins L, Palazzi K et al.. Opportunities Missed: A Cross-Sectional Survey of the Provision of Smoking Cessation Care to Pregnant Women by Australian General Practitioners and Obstetricians. Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 2017. link 13 . Committee Opinion No. 721 Summary: Smoking Cessation During Pregnancy. Obstetrics and gynecology 2017. link 14 . New mums who smoke at lowest level for ten years. Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987) 2016. link 15 Solano Reina S, Jiménez Ruiz CA, de Higes Martinez E, Garcia Rueda M, Callejas González FJ, de Granda Orive JI et al.. Prevalence, Knowledge and Attitudes Towards Smoking Among SEPAR Members. Archivos de bronconeumologia 2016. link 16 Yousefzadeh A, Chung F, Wong DT, Warner DO, Wong J. Smoking Cessation: The Role of the Anesthesiologist. Anesthesia and analgesia 2016. link 17 Bostan PP, Demir CK, Elbek O, Akçay Ş. Association between pulmonologists' tobacco use and their effort in promoting smoking cessation in Turkey: a cross-sectional study. BMC pulmonary medicine 2015. link 18 Zaballos M, Canal MI, Martínez R, Membrillo MJ, Gonzalez FJ, Orozco HD et al.. Preoperative smoking cessation counseling activities of anesthesiologists: a cross-sectional study. BMC anesthesiology 2015. link 19 Pelletier JH, Strout TD, Baumann MR. A systematic review of smoking cessation interventions in the emergency setting. The American journal of emergency medicine 2014. link 20 Schultz CR, Benson JJ, Cook DA, Warner DO. Training for perioperative smoking cessation interventions: a national survey of anesthesiology program directors and residents. Journal of clinical anesthesia 2014. link 21 Peters SM, Pabelick CM, Warner DO. Tobacco control education in pediatric anesthesiology fellowships. Paediatric anaesthesia 2013. link 22 Buggy Y, Cornelius V, Fogg C, Kasliwal R, Layton D, Shakir SA. Neuropsychiatric events with varenicline: a modified prescription-event monitoring study in general practice in England. Drug safety 2013. link 23 Haas JS, Amato M, Marinacci L, Orav EJ, Schiff GD, Bates DW. Do package inserts reflect symptoms experienced in practice?: assessment using an automated phone pharmacovigilance system with varenicline and zolpidem in a primary care setting. Drug safety 2012. link 24 Powers CA, Zapka J, Phelan S, Özcan T, Biello KB, O'Donnell J et al.. Tobacco education and counseling in obstetrics and gynecology clerkships: a survey of medical school program directors. Maternal and child health journal 2011. link 25 Bernstein SL, Boudreaux ED, Cabral L, Cydulka RK, Schwegman D, Larkin GL et al.. Efficacy of a brief intervention to improve emergency physicians' smoking cessation counseling skills, knowledge, and attitudes. Substance abuse 2009. link 26 Moss DR, Cluss PA, Watt-Morse M, Pike F. Targeting pregnant and parental smokers: long-term outcomes of a practice-based intervention. Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 2009. link 27 Warner DO. Feasibility of tobacco interventions in anesthesiology practices: a pilot study. Anesthesiology 2009. link 28 Birchley G. Opioid and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromes in the paediatric intensive care unit: a review of recent literature. Nursing in critical care 2009. link 29 Czajkowska-Malinowska M, Ciesielska A, Kruza K, Jesionka P. The prevalence of tobacco smoking and attitudes of Polish pulmonologists towards smoking. Pneumonologia i alergologia polska 2008. link 30 Rigotti NA, Park ER, Chang Y, Regan S. Smoking cessation medication use among pregnant and postpartum smokers. Obstetrics and gynecology 2008. link 31 Kai T, Maki T, Takahashi S, Warner DO. Perioperative tobacco use interventions in Japan: a survey of thoracic surgeons and anaesthesiologists. British journal of anaesthesia 2008. link 32 Kotz D, Wagena EJ, Wesseling G. Smoking cessation practices of Dutch general practitioners, cardiologists, and lung physicians. Respiratory medicine 2007. link 33 Margolin L, Cope DK, Bakst-Sisser R, Greenspan J. The steroid withdrawal syndrome: a review of the implications, etiology, and treatments. Journal of pain and symptom management 2007. link 34 Astbury N. "Sight for more eyes". The British journal of ophthalmology 2006. link 35 Segaar D, Bolman C, Willemsen MC, Vries Hd. Determinants of adoption of cognitive behavioral interventions in a hospital setting: example of a minimal-contact smoking cessation intervention for cardiology wards. Patient education and counseling 2006. link 36 Vokes NI, Bailey JM, Rhodes KV. "Should I give you my smoking lecture now or later?" Characterizing emergency physician smoking discussions and cessation counseling. Annals of emergency medicine 2006. link 37 Price JH, Jordan TR, Dake JA. Obstetricians and gynecologists' perceptions and use of nicotine replacement therapy. Journal of community health 2006. link 38 Percival J. Smoking cessation in pregnancy. Nursing times 2005. link 39 Loke AY, Lam TH. A randomized controlled trial of the simple advice given by obstetricians in Guangzhou, China, to non-smoking pregnant women to help their husbands quit smoking. Patient education and counseling 2005. link 40 Korak-Leiter M, Likar R, Oher M, Trampitsch E, Ziervogel G, Levy JV et al.. Withdrawal following sufentanil/propofol and sufentanil/midazolam. Sedation in surgical ICU patients: correlation with central nervous parameters and endogenous opioids. Intensive care medicine 2005. link 41 Wiggers LC, Stalmeier PF, Oort FJ, Smets EM, Legemate DA, de Haes JC. Do patients' preferences predict smoking cessation?. Preventive medicine 2005. link 42 Boshier A, Wilton LV, Shakir SA. Evaluation of the safety of bupropion (Zyban) for smoking cessation from experience gained in general practice use in England in 2000. European journal of clinical pharmacology 2003. link 43 . New smoking cessation effort offers multiple delivery models. Disease management advisor 2002. link 44 Naylor PJ, Adams JS, McNeil D. Facilitating changes in perinatal smoking. The impact of a stage-based workshop for care-providers in British Columbia. Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique 2002. link 45 Latts LM, Prochazka AV, Salas NM, Young DA. Smoking cessation in pregnancy: failure of an HMO pilot project to improve guideline implementation. Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco 2002. link 46 Grimley DM, Bellis JM, Raczynski JM, Henning K. Smoking cessation counseling practices: a survey of Alabama obstetrician-gynecologists. Southern medical journal 2001. link 47 Easton A, Husten C, Malarcher A, Elon L, Caraballo R, Ahluwalia I et al.. Smoking cessation counseling by primary care women physicians: Women Physicians' Health Study. Women & health 2001. link 48 Melvin CL, Tucker P. Measurement and definition for smoking cessation intervention research: the smoke-free families experience. Smoke-Free Families Common Evaluation Measures for Pregnancy and Smoking Cessation Projects Working Group. Tobacco control 2000. link 49 Oncken CA, Pbert L, Ockene JK, Zapka J, Stoddard A. Nicotine replacement prescription practices of obstetric and pediatric clinicians. Obstetrics and gynecology 2000. link00905-4) 50 . Include smoking cessation programs in prenatal care. Public sector contracting report : the monthly guide to Medicare and Medicaid managed care 1999. link 51 Helwig AL, Swain GR, Gottlieb M. Smoking cessation intervention: the practices of maternity care providers. The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice 1998. link 52 Mullen PD, Pollak KI, Titus JP, Sockrider MM, Moy JG. Prenatal smoking cessation counseling by Texas obstetricians. Birth (Berkeley, Calif.) 1998. link 53 Dunkley J. Training midwives to help pregnant women stop smoking. Nursing times 1997. link 54 Devonport C. Support for pregnant women who wish to stop smoking. Nursing times 1996. link 55 Gupton A, Thompson L, Arnason RC, Dalke S, Ashcroft T. Pregnant women and smoking. The Canadian nurse 1995. link 56 Hymowitz N. Paterson COMMIT: a smoke-free community initiative. New Jersey medicine : the journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey 1995. link 57 Prochazka A, Koziol-McLain J, Tomlinson D, Lowenstein SR. Smoking cessation counseling by emergency physicians: opinions, knowledge, and training needs. Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine 1995. link 58 Odd RW. Comments on Foulds's editorial "does nicotine replacement therapy work"?. Addiction (Abingdon, England) 1994. link 59 Utz SW, Shuster GF, Merwin E, Williams B. A community-based smoking-cessation program: self-care behaviors and success. Public health nursing (Boston, Mass.) 1994. link 60 Secker-Walker RH, Solomon LJ, Flynn BS, LePage SS, Crammond JE, Worden JK et al.. Training obstetric and family practice residents to give smoking cessation advice during prenatal care. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology 1992. link91604-9) 61 Grossarth-Maticek R, Eysenck HJ, Vetter H. Antismoking attitudes and general prejudice: an empirical study. Perceptual and motor skills 1988. link 62 McParlane EC, Mullen PD, DeNino LA. The cost effectiveness of an education outreach representative to OB practitioners to promote smoking cessation counseling. Patient education and counseling 1987. link90004-8) 63 Bauman KE, Bryan ES, Dent CW, Koch GG. The influence of observing carbon monoxide level on cigarette smoking by public prenatal patients. American journal of public health 1983. link 64 Coates TJ, Li VC. Does smoking cessation lead to weight gain? The experience of asbestos-exposed shipyard workers. American journal of public health 1983. link

    Original source

    1. [1]
      Sex-stratified pharmacovigilance of gastrointestinal events associated with first-line smoking-cessation medicines: Insights from the FAERS database. — Sun H, Chen J, Wu X, Wang Z PloS one (2025)
    2. [2]
      The effect of alcohol use on smoking cessation: A systematic review. — van Amsterdam J, van den Brink W Alcohol (Fayetteville, N.Y.) (2023)
    3. [3]
      Don't Follow the Smoke-Listening to the Tobacco Experiences and Attitudes of Urban Aboriginal Adolescents in the Study of Environment on Aboriginal Resilience and Child Health (SEARCH). — Heris CL, Cutmore M, Chamberlain C, Smith N, Simpson V, Sherriff S et al. International journal of environmental research and public health (2023)
    4. [4]
      Nicotine Replacement Therapy during Pregnancy and Child Health Outcomes: A Systematic Review. — Blanc J, Tosello B, Ekblad MO, Berlin I, Netter A International journal of environmental research and public health (2021)
    5. [5]
      Official Statement of the Spanish Society of Pulmonology and Thoracic Surgery (SEPAR) on Electronic Cigarettes and IQOS®. — Signes-Costa J, de Granda-Orive JI, Ramos Pinedo Á, Camarasa Escrig A, de Higes Martínez E, Rábade Castedo C et al. Archivos de bronconeumologia (2019)
    6. [6]
      Electronic cigarettes: a task force report from the European Respiratory Society. — Bals R, Boyd J, Esposito S, Foronjy R, Hiemstra PS, Jiménez-Ruiz CA et al. The European respiratory journal (2019)
    7. [7]
      Impact of a pharmacy-led smoking cessation clinic in a dermatology centre. — Cheng HM, Liu WC, Chua G, Liew CF, Li W, Choo W et al. Singapore medical journal (2019)
    8. [8]
      Weight gain after smoking cessation: more data to refute concerns. — Rigotti NA, Clair C European heart journal (2018)
    9. [9]
      Clinician factors associated with prescribing nicotine replacement therapy in pregnancy: A cross-sectional survey of Australian obstetricians and general practitioners. — Bar-Zeev Y, Bonevski B, Gruppetta M, Twyman L, Atkins L, Palazzi K et al. The Australian & New Zealand journal of obstetrics & gynaecology (2018)
    10. [10]
      Providing Antismoking Socialization to Children After Quitting Smoking: Does It Help Parents Stay Quit? — Hayes KA, Jackson C, Dickinson DM, Miller AL American journal of health promotion : AJHP (2018)
    11. [11]
      Practical guidelines on e-cigarettes for practitioners and others health professionals. A French 2016 expert's statement. — Dautzenberg B, Adler M, Garelik D, Loubrieu JF, Mathern G, Peiffer G et al. Revue des maladies respiratoires (2017)
    12. [12]
      Opportunities Missed: A Cross-Sectional Survey of the Provision of Smoking Cessation Care to Pregnant Women by Australian General Practitioners and Obstetricians. — Zeev YB, Bonevski B, Twyman L, Watt K, Atkins L, Palazzi K et al. Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco (2017)
    13. [13]
      Committee Opinion No. 721 Summary: Smoking Cessation During Pregnancy. Obstetrics and gynecology (2017)
    14. [14]
      New mums who smoke at lowest level for ten years. Nursing standard (Royal College of Nursing (Great Britain) : 1987) (2016)
    15. [15]
      Prevalence, Knowledge and Attitudes Towards Smoking Among SEPAR Members. — Solano Reina S, Jiménez Ruiz CA, de Higes Martinez E, Garcia Rueda M, Callejas González FJ, de Granda Orive JI et al. Archivos de bronconeumologia (2016)
    16. [16]
      Smoking Cessation: The Role of the Anesthesiologist. — Yousefzadeh A, Chung F, Wong DT, Warner DO, Wong J Anesthesia and analgesia (2016)
    17. [17]
      Association between pulmonologists' tobacco use and their effort in promoting smoking cessation in Turkey: a cross-sectional study. — Bostan PP, Demir CK, Elbek O, Akçay Ş BMC pulmonary medicine (2015)
    18. [18]
      Preoperative smoking cessation counseling activities of anesthesiologists: a cross-sectional study. — Zaballos M, Canal MI, Martínez R, Membrillo MJ, Gonzalez FJ, Orozco HD et al. BMC anesthesiology (2015)
    19. [19]
      A systematic review of smoking cessation interventions in the emergency setting. — Pelletier JH, Strout TD, Baumann MR The American journal of emergency medicine (2014)
    20. [20]
      Training for perioperative smoking cessation interventions: a national survey of anesthesiology program directors and residents. — Schultz CR, Benson JJ, Cook DA, Warner DO Journal of clinical anesthesia (2014)
    21. [21]
      Tobacco control education in pediatric anesthesiology fellowships. — Peters SM, Pabelick CM, Warner DO Paediatric anaesthesia (2013)
    22. [22]
      Neuropsychiatric events with varenicline: a modified prescription-event monitoring study in general practice in England. — Buggy Y, Cornelius V, Fogg C, Kasliwal R, Layton D, Shakir SA Drug safety (2013)
    23. [23]
      Do package inserts reflect symptoms experienced in practice?: assessment using an automated phone pharmacovigilance system with varenicline and zolpidem in a primary care setting. — Haas JS, Amato M, Marinacci L, Orav EJ, Schiff GD, Bates DW Drug safety (2012)
    24. [24]
      Tobacco education and counseling in obstetrics and gynecology clerkships: a survey of medical school program directors. — Powers CA, Zapka J, Phelan S, Özcan T, Biello KB, O'Donnell J et al. Maternal and child health journal (2011)
    25. [25]
      Efficacy of a brief intervention to improve emergency physicians' smoking cessation counseling skills, knowledge, and attitudes. — Bernstein SL, Boudreaux ED, Cabral L, Cydulka RK, Schwegman D, Larkin GL et al. Substance abuse (2009)
    26. [26]
      Targeting pregnant and parental smokers: long-term outcomes of a practice-based intervention. — Moss DR, Cluss PA, Watt-Morse M, Pike F Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco (2009)
    27. [27]
      Feasibility of tobacco interventions in anesthesiology practices: a pilot study. — Warner DO Anesthesiology (2009)
    28. [28]
      Opioid and benzodiazepine withdrawal syndromes in the paediatric intensive care unit: a review of recent literature. — Birchley G Nursing in critical care (2009)
    29. [29]
      The prevalence of tobacco smoking and attitudes of Polish pulmonologists towards smoking. — Czajkowska-Malinowska M, Ciesielska A, Kruza K, Jesionka P Pneumonologia i alergologia polska (2008)
    30. [30]
      Smoking cessation medication use among pregnant and postpartum smokers. — Rigotti NA, Park ER, Chang Y, Regan S Obstetrics and gynecology (2008)
    31. [31]
      Perioperative tobacco use interventions in Japan: a survey of thoracic surgeons and anaesthesiologists. — Kai T, Maki T, Takahashi S, Warner DO British journal of anaesthesia (2008)
    32. [32]
      Smoking cessation practices of Dutch general practitioners, cardiologists, and lung physicians. — Kotz D, Wagena EJ, Wesseling G Respiratory medicine (2007)
    33. [33]
      The steroid withdrawal syndrome: a review of the implications, etiology, and treatments. — Margolin L, Cope DK, Bakst-Sisser R, Greenspan J Journal of pain and symptom management (2007)
    34. [34]
      "Sight for more eyes". — Astbury N The British journal of ophthalmology (2006)
    35. [35]
      Determinants of adoption of cognitive behavioral interventions in a hospital setting: example of a minimal-contact smoking cessation intervention for cardiology wards. — Segaar D, Bolman C, Willemsen MC, Vries Hd Patient education and counseling (2006)
    36. [36]
      "Should I give you my smoking lecture now or later?" Characterizing emergency physician smoking discussions and cessation counseling. — Vokes NI, Bailey JM, Rhodes KV Annals of emergency medicine (2006)
    37. [37]
      Obstetricians and gynecologists' perceptions and use of nicotine replacement therapy. — Price JH, Jordan TR, Dake JA Journal of community health (2006)
    38. [38]
      Smoking cessation in pregnancy. — Percival J Nursing times (2005)
    39. [39]
      A randomized controlled trial of the simple advice given by obstetricians in Guangzhou, China, to non-smoking pregnant women to help their husbands quit smoking. — Loke AY, Lam TH Patient education and counseling (2005)
    40. [40]
      Withdrawal following sufentanil/propofol and sufentanil/midazolam. Sedation in surgical ICU patients: correlation with central nervous parameters and endogenous opioids. — Korak-Leiter M, Likar R, Oher M, Trampitsch E, Ziervogel G, Levy JV et al. Intensive care medicine (2005)
    41. [41]
      Do patients' preferences predict smoking cessation? — Wiggers LC, Stalmeier PF, Oort FJ, Smets EM, Legemate DA, de Haes JC Preventive medicine (2005)
    42. [42]
      Evaluation of the safety of bupropion (Zyban) for smoking cessation from experience gained in general practice use in England in 2000. — Boshier A, Wilton LV, Shakir SA European journal of clinical pharmacology (2003)
    43. [43]
      New smoking cessation effort offers multiple delivery models. Disease management advisor (2002)
    44. [44]
      Facilitating changes in perinatal smoking. The impact of a stage-based workshop for care-providers in British Columbia. — Naylor PJ, Adams JS, McNeil D Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique (2002)
    45. [45]
      Smoking cessation in pregnancy: failure of an HMO pilot project to improve guideline implementation. — Latts LM, Prochazka AV, Salas NM, Young DA Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco (2002)
    46. [46]
      Smoking cessation counseling practices: a survey of Alabama obstetrician-gynecologists. — Grimley DM, Bellis JM, Raczynski JM, Henning K Southern medical journal (2001)
    47. [47]
      Smoking cessation counseling by primary care women physicians: Women Physicians' Health Study. — Easton A, Husten C, Malarcher A, Elon L, Caraballo R, Ahluwalia I et al. Women & health (2001)
    48. [48]
      Measurement and definition for smoking cessation intervention research: the smoke-free families experience. Smoke-Free Families Common Evaluation Measures for Pregnancy and Smoking Cessation Projects Working Group. — Melvin CL, Tucker P Tobacco control (2000)
    49. [49]
      Nicotine replacement prescription practices of obstetric and pediatric clinicians. — Oncken CA, Pbert L, Ockene JK, Zapka J, Stoddard A Obstetrics and gynecology (2000)
    50. [50]
      Include smoking cessation programs in prenatal care. Public sector contracting report : the monthly guide to Medicare and Medicaid managed care (1999)
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      Smoking cessation intervention: the practices of maternity care providers. — Helwig AL, Swain GR, Gottlieb M The Journal of the American Board of Family Practice (1998)
    52. [52]
      Prenatal smoking cessation counseling by Texas obstetricians. — Mullen PD, Pollak KI, Titus JP, Sockrider MM, Moy JG Birth (Berkeley, Calif.) (1998)
    53. [53]
      Training midwives to help pregnant women stop smoking. — Dunkley J Nursing times (1997)
    54. [54]
      Support for pregnant women who wish to stop smoking. — Devonport C Nursing times (1996)
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      Pregnant women and smoking. — Gupton A, Thompson L, Arnason RC, Dalke S, Ashcroft T The Canadian nurse (1995)
    56. [56]
      Paterson COMMIT: a smoke-free community initiative. — Hymowitz N New Jersey medicine : the journal of the Medical Society of New Jersey (1995)
    57. [57]
      Smoking cessation counseling by emergency physicians: opinions, knowledge, and training needs. — Prochazka A, Koziol-McLain J, Tomlinson D, Lowenstein SR Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine (1995)
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      Comments on Foulds's editorial "does nicotine replacement therapy work"? — Odd RW Addiction (Abingdon, England) (1994)
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      A community-based smoking-cessation program: self-care behaviors and success. — Utz SW, Shuster GF, Merwin E, Williams B Public health nursing (Boston, Mass.) (1994)
    60. [60]
      Training obstetric and family practice residents to give smoking cessation advice during prenatal care. — Secker-Walker RH, Solomon LJ, Flynn BS, LePage SS, Crammond JE, Worden JK et al. American journal of obstetrics and gynecology (1992)
    61. [61]
      Antismoking attitudes and general prejudice: an empirical study. — Grossarth-Maticek R, Eysenck HJ, Vetter H Perceptual and motor skills (1988)
    62. [62]
      The cost effectiveness of an education outreach representative to OB practitioners to promote smoking cessation counseling. — McParlane EC, Mullen PD, DeNino LA Patient education and counseling (1987)
    63. [63]
      The influence of observing carbon monoxide level on cigarette smoking by public prenatal patients. — Bauman KE, Bryan ES, Dent CW, Koch GG American journal of public health (1983)
    64. [64]
      Does smoking cessation lead to weight gain? The experience of asbestos-exposed shipyard workers. — Coates TJ, Li VC American journal of public health (1983)
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